An Electrifying Experience

Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, ABB, Hitachi, and me…

The other day, I visited some historic sites related to Tesla and Westinghouse, which brought back memories of my time at ABB and Hitachi, both of which had links to Westinghouse over the years. While you might find stories about Tesla, Edison, and Westinghouse in many American books, magazines, and articles, there are hardly any about how these American companies eventually merged with the European ABB and, later, the Japanese Hitachi.

The last two decades of the 19th century saw a convergence of scientists, inventors, and industrialists working to harness electricity for lighting and powering rotating machines. While listing all those involved, fighting over their inventions, and patenting their ideas would take up a lot of space, the most prominent names are Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse. Another key figure connected to both is the highly admired Serbian Nikola Tesla. Interestingly, Edison was never formally educated and started his career as a newspaper boy, eventually becoming a publisher; however, he always made time to read about science. His fascination with telegraphy began in 1862, and by the age of 22, he had obtained his first patent for a vote counter. Eight years later, he had established his own companies.

A series of inventions followed, and when telephony was developed, Edison was working on modifications to microphones and the phonograph. Around 1878, he was introduced to an electric generator, which lit arc lamps, by another inventor named William Wallace. From that point on, power generation and lighting became his primary focus, leading to rivalries, numerous court cases, and what later became known as the 'War of currents.' Edison supported and believed in working with Direct Current, or DC. He worked on improving a filament for the electric bulb that could be mass-produced and last a long time, as well as enhancing the generating and power distribution systems. In 1879, he patented the light bulb, and by 1882, he had electrified parts of New York.

George Westinghouse, just a year older than Edison, too, had limited education and served in the US Navy until 1865. His first patent was for a farm steam engine, and he later invented the 'frog,' a device that helped trains cross tracks. His subsequent major development was the air brake for trains. One of his early supporters was the Vanderbilt family, and Westinghouse eventually established his operations in Pittsburgh. Afterward, he spent several years developing natural gas safety systems and continued to work on train signaling systems. Around 1885, while reading a report on the "International Inventions exhibition" in England, Westinghouse learned about the Gaulard Gibbs transformer and its ability to transfer electric power. Intrigued, he began studying the field eagerly.

Soon, he learned that Gaulard and Gibbs had successfully electrified parts of Turin, Italy, and transmitted power over about 50 miles. He quickly bought an AC generator made by Werner von Siemens and two G&G transformers. He hired an Englishman named Belfield to come to smoky Pittsburgh (all due to the iron industry) to help his engineer Stanley, who was working on lighting projects. In 1886, he founded the Westinghouse Electric Company, bought the G&G transformer patent, and redesigned the transformer as we know it today. Stanley and Belfield rapidly developed the first single-phase AC system, where a 25 HP steam engine generator produced power, raised it to 500V, transmitted it across town, lowered it to 100V, and lit 150 bulbs.

Edison, too, entered the field after purchasing a patent from a Hungarian trio, ZBD (Zipernovsky, Bláthy, and Déri), but AC did not interest him. Seeing that Westinghouse was successfully working with AC, and assuming that Westinghouse was promoting it only to bypass his (Edison's) patents, Edison responded by claiming that AC was dangerous. He also leveraged his connections to the media to suggest that many people could die if they worked with AC. However, his efforts to scare people did not quite have the desired effect.

Although we discussed DC, AC, and arc lights, the concept of an AC motor was still not fully developed in practice. DC motors existed and were used for transit applications. Once again, the first invention came from Turin, Italy, where Ferraris conceived the idea of a two-phase motor in 1885. In 1888, Westinghouse bought the patent from Ferraris for a small sum. It was at this point that a new player entered the scene: Nikola Tesla from Serbia.

Nikola Tesla (b. 1857), after an incomplete education and brief stints in Budapest working as a draftsman and electrician in the Central Telephony Department, and in Paris for Edison's lighting division, decided to move to the United States in 1884 for better opportunities. He joined the Edison Machine Works in New York but left after a few months, reportedly due to a dispute over an unpaid bonus related to the development of an arc lighting system. His attempt to start a company failed, and Tesla was nearly homeless, forced to do menial work. In 1887, Tesla patented his two-phase, self-starting induction motor (as well as a three-phase, 6-wire motor).

Westinghouse, who was searching for such a design, had previously tested prototypes created by the Italian Galileo Ferraris. He now decided to license Tesla's design and hired him at his Pittsburgh plant. Tesla later agreed that his design was similar to Ferrari's, but Tesla's had already been patented in the US. Nevertheless, Westinghouse faced many issues with Tesla's design because it was made for 60Hz. At the same time, Westinghouse systems and the Shallenberger meter were all suitable for a power frequency of 133Hz.

In 1891, Westinghouse engineers, led by Lamme, finally agreed on 60 Hz as their new power frequency, marking a departure from their previous standard of 133 Hz. That same year, AEG engineers in Berlin chose 50 Hz as their new power frequency. One reason was that arc light carbons used at that time did not perform well with 50 Hz. Other frequencies considered were 133, 30, and 60 Hz. The Westinghouse systems were then redesigned for a frequency of 60 Hz, mainly due to pressure from Tesla, who strongly advocated for changing from 133 Hz to 60 Hz.

The topic of frequency selection is complex and best explained in the detailed paper by Edward L. Owen. It discusses how the world had systems operating at various frequencies and how they gradually converged toward two main standards over time. Owen summarizes: There were many standard frequencies in use, even as recently as 20 years ago (1977). The outcome was determined by field operating conditions, not by the exploitation of specific systems to limit competition. Engineers focused on fixing defects rather than competing with each other.

Thus, we see Westinghouse electrifying cities with his 2-phase AC systems, while Edison continued with his DC concept. The competition turned unhealthy when copper prices made DC systems (which used much more copper) uncompetitive.

Although Edison attempted to tarnish Westinghouse's reputation and designs, he was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, Westinghouse faced financial difficulties when the banking industry collapsed in 1890, which halted further work on a Tesla motor. Several years later, Westinghouse purchased the Tesla patent for $216,000 and also signed a patent-sharing agreement with Edison's General Electric. Tesla moved on to work on new projects, including his Tesla Coil, wireless lighting, wireless power, remote control, and other ventures.

Meanwhile, AEG's Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed a three-phase system in 1888-89, using three wires instead of six. He also perfected the Delta Star three-phase transformer but faced challenges with the three-phase motor, which he finally solved by using the squirrel cage design to reduce eddy currents. At this point, an engineer of English origin named Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown, working in Switzerland, teamed up with Dobrovolsky, Miller, and, with the support of the German government and a cement company, built the very first complete three-phase system, including a 15 KV transmission line 175 km long, which was celebrated in Europe as a remarkable achievement.

Brown and Dobrovolsky ended their cooperation around this point. Brown managed the English-speaking media effectively (Dobrovolsky struggled), then appeared to claim that the system's success was due to his efforts with Tesla's backing (Tesla was not truly involved). Brown mentioned Tesla's name mainly because there was a Tesla craze at the time, driven by the success of the Tesla Coil and the widespread belief that wireless power transmission might soon become common. Across the Atlantic, as seen in 1892, Lamme at Westinghouse in the U.S. agreed on 60Hz and optimized the two-phase motor. From that point on, Westinghouse used Tesla's good reputation to promote his work, especially two-phase systems.

It was indeed Tesla who proposed a design for the first three-phase motor and generator, and who also patented a two-phase and three-phase six-wire motor-generator in 1888. Still, if someone were to ask who demonstrated the 4-wire 3-phase electric generation, transmission, and distribution, as well as the development of a squirrel-cage motor, the answer would be different. It was indeed Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky. GE, however, favored three-phase motors. There is more to the story, including the involvement of Steinmetz and others, but we will leave it for another day.

On the North American side, the Niagara connection between Canada and the US was initiated on the Canadian side by Henry Pellat in 1903, while the Adams plant on the US side first started generating power in 1895. Westinghouse built the plants. Strangely, they used a 25Hz polyphase (2-phase) system, which was eventually phased out after 60Hz became the standard in North America. 25Hz frequency was chosen as the standard because the turbines for the original Niagara Falls power project were already designed to operate at 250 RPM, which required a 25Hz generator to produce power. This initial decision, influenced by mechanical and industrial needs for motors and DC conversion, established a precedent in the region.

Dobrovolsky died unheralded, while Edison was ousted from the pioneering company when GE was created, following its acquisition by financier JP Morgan. Ultimately, three-phase power became the standard for electrical transmission worldwide, with North America maintaining a frequency of 60Hz, thanks to Tesla. Meanwhile, most of the rest of the world adopted 50Hz, except Japan, which used both frequencies because AEG and Westinghouse installed systems with 50 and 60Hz in the country. I won't delve into the War of Currents between Westinghouse and Edison, Tesla's other major inventions and discoveries, the Nobel Prize dispute, or related topics; instead, I will move on to Europe and continue with Brown.

In 1887, Brown, the technical director of MFO (Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon), decided to start his own business. Following his association with Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Brown co-founded the company Brown, Boveri & Cie with Walter Boveri in Baden, Switzerland, in 1891. After Brown retired, Boveri served as Chairman of the BBC from 1911 to 1924. He led various electricity companies, and his work on railway electrification earned him a seat on the board of the Swiss Federal Railways. Boveri's sons, Theodor and Walter Junior, later took on various roles at BBC. Walter's brother Robert (1873-1934) headed a subsidiary, BBC Mannheim, in Germany, for several years until his death. Robert's son, William Boveri, also worked at BBC as a director.

BBC achieved significant success in post-war Europe, especially in Italy and many other regions, including the Middle East. Their solid designs in the power, radio, and railway sectors were popular in numerous countries. By the 80s, it was known as the grand old lady of Switzerland, continuing to hire top-tier immigrant engineers but generating little profit.

Now, you have seen brief histories of Westinghouse, General Electric, AEG (partially), and BBC in Switzerland, along with their connections to one man—Nikola Tesla, whose name they all used or referenced. Siemens, English Electric, and many other organizations also made significant contributions to this sector, but their stories are not covered in this article.

Now, let's go to Sweden, where a young Jonas Wenström led the way in developing a power system for his country. In 1883, he co-founded Elektriska Aktiebolaget with Ludvig Fredholm, a well-known businessman, and patented his dynamo in 1884. In 1890, Elektriska merged with Wenström's brother's company to create Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget, later shortened to ASEA, with Västerås as its headquarters. As early as 1893, the young company was involved in building Sweden's first three-phase electrical transmission line, a 15 km, 9.5 kV line from a hydroelectric plant at Hällsjön to a mine in Grängesberg. Sadly, Jonas died in the same year at just 38.

Interestingly, Wenström also received a patent in 1890 for a three-phase system, just like Dobrovolsky did! In 1897, ASEA built the first electric locomotive. Ernst Danielson improved the designs, and the company grew rapidly, teaming up with De Laval. However, they soon faced financial struggles. The Wallenbergs and the Enskilda bank stepped in, and after some growth, ASEA became a well-known name. Still, it soon engaged in talks with European manufacturing cartels, including the match king, Sweden's Ivar Kreuger, and also connected with U.S. companies GE and Westinghouse. Still, it remained independent and maintained close ties to the Swedish Wallenberg family.

By the mid-20th century, the company had expanded to produce a wide range of electrical equipment, including generators, transformers, HVDC equipment, motors, industrial automation systems, nuclear power plants, trains, robots, presses, and synthetic diamonds. Manufacturing plants in Ludvika and Västerås thrived, and overseas investments and projects began to expand. In 1980, after acquiring Flakt, Percy Barnevik, who was working for Sandvik in the USA, became the CEO of ASEA, sparking a wave of rapid changes and acquisitions. Attempts to acquire AEG and GE's T&D in the U.S. were unsuccessful, but Stromberg from Finland and Elsag Bailey quickly joined the company, and profits rose significantly.

In 1987, Barnevik orchestrated a merger between ASEA and the Swiss company Brown Boveri, its main competitor in many markets. Barnevik needed scale to grow further, and BBC had a broader international presence. A year later, the merger of the two companies took place, followed by a period of some turmoil. The new company, headquartered in Baden, was named ABB – ASEA BROWN BOVERI.

A year later, ABB acquired the company we had initially discussed, Westinghouse Electric's power and transmission and distribution (T&D) operations, which faced financial difficulties and low margins. The next major ABB acquisition was the large Combustion Engineering in Houston, working with notable advisors such as Henry Kissinger and Donald Rumsfeld (who became a company director). The company struggled with issues such as asbestos and a weakening Asian economy, finding it difficult to integrate what it had acquired, possibly more than it could manage. With investments in the US and many other regions not performing as hoped, the company's profits declined, leaving the group vulnerable to strategic shifts.

Hitachi in Japan was established in 1910 by Namihei Odaira, starting as an electrical machinery manufacturer for a mining company. Namihei Odaira, during his free time that year while still working at the Kuhara mine, developed Japan's first 5-horsepower electric motor, together with a colleague. After World War II, it played a vital role in Japan's reconstruction by producing industrial machinery, including trains and power equipment. The company expanded into electronics, launching the first transistor-based computer in 1959. By the 1990s, it had become a global leader in semiconductor and memory device technologies. In 2018, Hitachi and ABB established a joint venture, which was formalized as Hitachi Energy in 2021. This joint venture was fully integrated into Hitachi in 2022.

Thus, developments in North America and Europe converged, created, and eventually led to the breakup of the companies we grew up with. Ongoing developments and demands regularly drive change, with players from diverse regions—such as Japan in Asia—joining European and American industry leaders. Discussions and innovations, sometimes influenced or accelerated by government policies, continue regularly, transforming the electrical landscape. I thought it would be a good idea to reflect on how all this unfolded—how 60Hz became the standard in the US, a brief overview of the DC-AC battles, the development of polyphase power transmission, and so on.

As for me, I began my career with ASEA in India, then worked with ABB after the BBC merger in the Middle East and Europe. I moved to the USA following the Westinghouse acquisition and eventually spent my final years with the organization formed through a merger with Japanese Hitachi. It was a fascinating career that allowed me to travel and experience many cultures across different countries.

Last week, as I stood in front of the historic generating station at Niagara, built by Westinghouse and Tesla, and looked at the old equipment, I couldn't help but marvel at how much has changed and how we still work with AC and also with high-voltage DC transmission—something Edison would have winked at. Not to mention the talks about wireless transmission, which Tesla would have eagerly embraced!

References

The lightning Tamers – Kathy Joseph

The Origins of 60-Hz as a Power Frequency by Edward L. Owen

Electrifying Experience – First Century of the ASEA group - 1883-1983

ABB the Dancing giant – Kevin Barham & Claudia Heimer