Most people have only a vague concept of the temple’s history. I thought it would be a good idea to provide a brief overview based on the perusal of historic records, primarily the many papers and books authored by an early Malabar chronicler, KV Krishna Ayyar. Some years ago, I had written about the involvement of the Dutch and Hydrose Kutty Moplah, in the temple’s history. This will overlap and cover earlier aspects and take you through a few of the changes after Malabar came under the British administration. So, this article will take you through some early surmises, the Dutch and Mysore periods, and eventually the golden days under the Zamorins of Calicut, who incidentally are still the main trustees. We will also quickly check out what Ayyar termed the Guruvayur Cult.
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The older temples
In the old Sangam times, the biggest of the temple
sankethams in the region was Thrikannamathilakam (the Kunavayilkottam of the
ancient Tamil writers, the Gunaka of the medieval Sandesas, and the
Trkkunamatilakam or Matilakam of the English and Dutch records) near
Tiruvanchikulam, the capital of the Cheras. Mathilakam as it was popularly
known, was supposedly a Jain center of learning, but later morphed into housing
a Siva shrine of great importance. Located near today's Irinjalakkuda, it was
also the place where a Jain scribe composed the epic Silappadikaram (Tamil epic
dating to around the 9th Century). Kunavayilkottam (Thirukkana vayil kottam) is
according to MGS Narayanan a pseudonym for Mathilakam, a place which in
antiquity hosted some 6-7 Jain temples (Sreedhara Menon in the Trichur
Gazetteer mentions that Kunavayil is situated to the north of Tiruvanchikulam
and on the eastern side of the old capital shoring the Arabian Sea).
Trikkana Mathilakam thus became home to the large Siva
temple, to which many other local temples such as the Guruvayur and
Koodalmanikam temples are supposed to have become subordinates. As the story
goes, the uralers or temple custodians, the Tekkedath and Vadakedath Nairs,
were responsible for the building of many walls at Mathilakam which however
served to alienate the various occupants of the principality. The main
dissenters were the Nambuthiris who left the temple area after a tiff, and the
temple town fell into disuse. By the end of the 14th century, Mathilakam had
come into the possession of the Zamorin of Calicut with whom it remained for
some centuries till the Dutch came along and battled over the Cranganore and
Cochin areas in the 17th century.
Historic references - Guruvayur
In ancient texts, the reference to the temple goes by the
terms Kuruveyur or Kuruvayur, (a Tamil invocation, mentions kuruvayurampumumparperumale,
the 16th century Chakravakasandesa mentions a place beyond
Mamiyur as kuruvayuren ruperam pradesam, and in temple
records as late as 1637 as Kuruveyur Tevar) and Ayyar guesses
that it could be connected to Kuruvai (meaning Sea) signifying its proximity to
the sea and also believes that the Koreoura of Ptolemy is Guruvayur. The
prosperity of the region, especially the temple is owed to the Zamorin’s
arrival in the area and his assumption of overlordship over the area.
That said, others attribute the construction of the temple
itself to the Pandyas (by a king who was cured of leprosy after praying there),
and was maintained by the Nambuthiris of the region. It is said that the idol
with antiquity of over 5,000 years is made of Pathala-anjana-sila (black
bismuth), rarely used for making idols.
According to tradition, there were seventy-two Nambuthiri
illams in the vicinity in the past. Though the exact details are unclear they
were quite many and required four Otikkans (Vedic priests), to minister to
their religious needs. The old temple records mention Guruvayur Sanketam
comprising five Desams – namely Guruvayur, Tiruvenkatam, Mammiyur, Tamarayur,
and Anjiyur. Guruvayur over time became a subordinate to the powerful Trikkukkunavayi.
The Talapilli kingdom & the Zamorin
The kur matsara (see
linked article) and the war between the Zamorin and the Valluvanda Raja
would go on to popularize Guruvayur and hastened the decline in popularity of
the famous Tirunavaya temple. The war for Tirunavaya dragged on for years, and
the devotees on the southern side of the river started going to Guruvayur. After
the Zamorin expelled the Vellatri from Tirunavayi, he marched on southwards as
far as Cochin and became the Melkoyma or sovereign protector of both
Trkkunavayi and Guruvayur. Over time, he also became a devotee of Guruvayur,
and his subjects also started visiting Guruvayur in large numbers.
As his accessions grew, the Zamorin became the suzerain of
Kakkad or Talappilli now within the Cochin state. The chieftain, originally a Nambutiri
had been degraded to a Nambiti for committing manslaughter (the slaying of the
Bhutaraya Perumal). The Brahmans in their gratitude conferred upon him the
lordship of the lands in Talapilli with the title of Kakkad Karanavappad
(another legend states that he had killed Choy, the general of the Chola king,
who invaded the country). Over time, this family split into four tavazhis -
Kakkad, Punnathur, Ayinikur, and Manakulam. While the Kakkad, Ayinkur, and
Manakulam factions moved to the side of the Cochin Raja, the Punnathur side
aligned itself with the Zamorin as early as the 15th century. Initially at
loggerheads with them, Punnatur signed a peace treaty with the Dutch in 1717,
but things went awry and he collaborated again with the Zamorin and the
British, resulting in the Dutch attack at Guruvayur. The major portion of
Chavakkad, Kunnamkulam, Kakkad, and Chittilappilli formed part of the domain of
Punnathur (Kottappadi near Guruvayur was the seat of the Punnathur family,
today home to the elephants of Guruvayur). After some centuries the Ayinikur
and Manakulam factions too defected and joined the powerful Zamorin.
The Zamorin rewarded the Punnathur branch for its services
by giving its members large areas of territory that he had conquered from
Cochin. The Punnathur enjoyed the unique privilege of taking part in the
Zamorin’s Ariyittuvazcha and dining with him. Guruvayur which became the
Zamorin’s favorite temple from then on, rose in esteem after he took over the
urayma rights over it from the Punnathur chief.
Cochin claims (translation by VKR Menon)
After the treaty of Seringapatam in 1792, Tippu Sultan ceded
Malabar to the English East India Company. The Duncan Commission was appointed to
study and settle the rival claims of the many Rajas and Chiefs of Malabar. The
Cochin Raja laid claims on Guruvayur, stating thus - Cavakkat Desom-This
Desom had been gifted away to Kanippayyur Nambutiripad, the hereditary
preceptor of the Cochin ruling family. This also has been overrun by the
Zamorin and the Nambutiripad was compelled to surrender his rights to the
former. The famous temple of Guruvayur in that Desom originally belonged to me…It
did not impress Duncan and the British verdict favored the Zamorin.
Rice for the devotees and the increase in fame
The connection between Kunisseri near Pallavur and Guruvayur
is quite interesting. It deals with the rice requirements at Guruvayur. As
Guruvayur was in a rice-deficit region, it became a huge issue to feed the
thousands of pilgrims who started to visit the now-popular temple. Ayyar
explains that the chief priest, Cennamangalam Namputiri, was also the domestic
chaplain of the Zamorin. In the course of his conquests, the Zamorin had driven
a wedge through the center of the fertile Palghat District as far as Pollachi,
namely Naduvattom. At the instance of Cennamangalam, the Zamorin secured the
Vermamlr (Perumanur) Devasvam in the present Parakkulam near Kunisseri and the
Cerikkal of Vallappanad sometime in the fifteenth century. The temple records
show that every year some 300 to 500 Potis of paddy were taken to Guruvayur
from Kunissery at the astoundingly low transportation cost of one Fanam or 28
nya paisa per Poti as head load.
By the end of the sixteenth century, Guruvayur had become
the most famous pilgrimage center in Kerala. The 16th century witnessed the
five foremost devotees of Guruvayurappan - Puntanam (1547-1640), Melputtur
(1559-1625), Vilvamangalam II (1575-1660), Kururamma (1570-1640), and Prince
(afterward the Zamorin) Manavedan (1595-1658).
The Dutch debacles
The Zamorin after his march into Valluvanad and Naduvattom,
continued to the Guruvayur area and supposedly constructed the Sreekovil, the
gold-covered flag mast, and the North and West gates of the temple. The Dutch meanwhile
obtained sovereignty over Pappinivattom (Paponnetty) in 1715 and built Fort
Williams. This was later seized by the Zamorin and the British, and they held
it through 1716. In 1716, during the war with the Zamorin, the Dutch raided
Guruvayur. The friction between the Dutch and Punnathur-Zamorin combo must have
resulted in the plunder of Guruvayur around 1717. The temple was plundered by
wayward Javanese mercenary forces of the Dutch, who in 1716-17, attacked the
temple, stripping off the gold from the main flag mast. They then took away
some of the treasures from the underground vaults and set fire to the western
gateway (Padinjare Gopuram). Interestingly while the Javanese soldiers
plundered the temple and took away silver, gold, and gems, Rev Visscher admits
to pocketing many idols, which he kept as relics! 18 ½ villages around
Guruvayur were granted to the Dutch after the war, as compensation, by the
Zamorin.
But thanks to the robust devotee donations and collections, the
losses were soon recouped, and the Patinjare Gopuram was rebuilt in 1747 by
Panikka Veettil lttiraricca Menon. In the 1730’s there used to be a Dutch
customs station at Guruvayur, a busy trade traffic junction.
Mysorean invasion
After a new Zamorin came into power in 1746, the situation
changed again and the Zamorin supported by his Moplah and Nair troops,
reestablished control over most of these areas during the 1755-58 period.
Again, the Dutch, reinforced with Javanese support from Batavia defeated him in
1758 and ransacked the Mathilakam area where the Zamorin’s forces were
headquartered. The Zamorin who was involved in the Dutch wars, passed away in
1758. Trouble was looming, for the Mysore forces which had made three sporadic
forays into Malabar previously were now poised to attack again and a new
Zamorin was viewing all this pensively. Haider was soon at the fore, Calicut
was invaded and the Zamorin perished in the palace fire and attack of 1766,
apparently immolating himself, a subject which we had covered earlier. Haider’s
first task was to make sure that his primary objective – i.e., organized, and
unorganized collection of revenues for his other war efforts- was quickly put
into effect. For the role of Hydrose Kutty, the tax collector, please refer
to the linked article, where I have gone into his story in detail.
In 1766 after Haider Ali occupied Calicut, his forces
established their camps at Chavakkad. Guruvayur as a rich temple was in Hyder’s
sights for a looting mission, but thanks to the intervention of Venkata
Narayana Ayyar his military Governor of Tiruvannamalai, the temple was spared.
It was not as straightforward as it sounds and a large ransom of 10,000 fanams
had to be paid to Haider on the Zamorin’s behalf by the Vadakkepat Warrier.
Nevertheless, the arrival of pilgrims and collections at the temple rapidly
declined and it was only after Srinivasa Rao’s (another administrator of Haider
Ali) Devadaya or Brahmodayam, i.e., gift of lands for the temple’s upkeep (354
acres) that the temple administrators got some respite.
Later, due to monetary deficits, Tipu first stopped the
Devadaya granted by Srinivasa Rao and later ordered the plunder of the temple. Assuming
that Venkata Narayana Rao might not promptly execute his order, he also sent
the order to his Muslim Governor at Calicut, but both of them delayed the order
execution. Meanwhile, the Malliserri Namboothiri and the Kakad Othikan managed
to conceal the main image in a well full of water and escape with the Utsava
vigraha and all valuables to Ambalapuzha in Travancore. Tipu’s soldiers meanwhile,
destroyed the smaller shrines all around (1789-90) and set fire to the temple
according to KV K Ayyar’s notes, but a timely rain saved the shrine from
destruction.
You may have noted a comment about the underground cellar
and the purported shift of the Guruvayur treasures to Travancore, upon Tipu’s
arrival. Tipu was convinced (per Dutch records) that a large amount of treasure
was moved by the Zamorin family (from Guruvayur and Calicut) to Travancore and
this was one of the main reasons he was desperate to cross the Travancore lines
and subdue the ruler of Travancore (perhaps they were then stored at
Padmanabhapuram vaults), something he failed to achieve.
The British period
Though worship in the temple was resumed in A.D. 1792, it
was difficult to manage. The tenants (many of the old landowners had fled),
most of whom were now Muslims, would not pay rent. The Devadaya stopped by Tipu
could not be easily reinstated by the English. The Zamorin’s position also
remained uncertain till A.D. 1805, for he too had lost authority after the
Mysorean turmoil.
The Ulanad Panikkars became the unofficial advisers of the
Zamorin and looked after his interests in the temple between 1825 to 1900 (They
began their management with a small-scale Astabandha kalasa or refixing of the
image). The Dipastambha or pillar of lights, under the flagstaff, was erected
and in 1841 the Government of Madras restored the Devadaya formally. The
Kizhakke Gopuram, or eastern gateway, was rebuilt in 1842.
The temple authorities embarked upon an extensive building
program by 1859, the central shrine and the Mantapam, facing it, were covered
with copper sheets, and a permanent flagstaff with a bell-metal covering, was erected.
The Chuttampalam or the colonnaded hall all around the central shrine, the
Vilakkumuttam, or the gallery of lights, and the Koottampalam, or the dancing
hall, were all completed. The Sastha shrine was roofed with copper sheets, and
the eastern courtyard was covered with a tiled roof around 1892.
Sri Konthi Menon, who became Manager in A.D. 1900, divided
the work of the Devasvam into several departments to increase efficiency and
evicted many land usurpers. The Kizh Santis, or subordinate priests, had to
give up their right to a perpetual service tenure. He reconstructed the
Pattayapura or granary and set up the big bell to ring the hour as the clock
strikes. In 1911 a grand Astabandha kalasa or refixing of the loose image was
performed.
Court of Wards, Ettan Thampuran
Following the British takeover, the Zamorins were reduced to
the level of mere landlords and were at the mercy of the British. The Swarupams
and royal houses had declined, and the vast estate was beset with
maladministration. Claimants walked away with property, and there was hardly
any collection to beset expenses. The
pension grant to the family by the British was temporarily stopped on the
grounds of the Zamorin having failed to assist the British troops who were
employed in quelling an early Moplah outbreak. Meanwhile, the Dharma Rakshana
Sabha sought to oust the reigning Zamorin from his trusteeship of the Guruvayur
temple, on grounds of gross mismanagement of the temple funds. That Zamorin
passed away in 1912.
His successor, Manavikrama Ettan Raja, (Ettan Thampuran, my
great grandfather) was thrust into this mighty and disastrous mess but realized
quickly that estate management was not his forte. More at home with Sanskrit
grammar and Sanskrit poetry than with rent rolls and account books, he realized
the futility of his efforts and wisely decided to abdicate. UB Nair writes that
in taking this unusual step, which was beset with many difficulties, Ettan
Thampuran showed rare prudence and moral courage if only to ensure professional
management of these lands. In a final desperate effort, the ruler freed himself
from the shackles imposed by custom and prejudice. The Madras Government,
at his urgent request, agreed to take over, with effect from Oct 1915, the
Zamorin’s estates, to be managed for the family by the Court of Wards for the
following 12 years.
The despair of losing Guruvayur is said to have weighed on
his mind, hastening his death the following year. The estates were wisely administered
by Mr. JA Thorne. Ayyar, who knew Thorne well, explains - Uniformly
courteous and considerate, its representative J. A. Throne, I.C.S., continued
and completed the work of Konthi Menon. With the rendition of the Estate in
A.D. 1928, the Zamorin once again became responsible for Guruvayur. Two years afterwards
the High Court of Madras framed a scheme for the temple and the rights of the
Zamorin were more clearly defined.
Punnathur Kotta & the Zamorin’s palace.
The many elephants gracing Guruvayur ceremonies are housed
in the grounds surrounding Punnathur Kotta, a small palace about two kilometers
away from the temple, where the Punnathur Raja once resided. The area around
the Nalukettu is now the 'Palace for Elephants’. In addition, there used to be
a small kovilakom built by the Zamorin a little distance away from the temple, sometime
around 1351, a place to stop on his way to Kodungallur. The Krishnattam troupe
used to reside and perform here as well as at the temple, facing the stone slab
to the South, the spot which is believed (and often disputed) to be the place
where Manaveda was cremated.
Temple entry movement
Commotion on temple entry for all devotees started in the
30’s. The Avarnas or low castes were admitted into the temple to make their
obeisance directly in front of the Lord's image, only once a year. After the
last worship at night of the Ekadasi festival, generally in December, the
temple was thrown open to them. In Nov 1931, Kelappan started a Satyagraha to
secure this privilege for them on all days for all worship. After 12 days and Gandhiji’s
intervention, he broke the fast, but the temple had been closed down though the
required ceremonies continued at the Otikkan Matam. The High Court upheld the
rights of the temple; the Satyagrahis withdrew; and worship was resumed in the
temple on January 28, 1932. On June 1st, 1947, all Avarnas were allowed free
entry which till then the Savarnas or caste Hindus alone had enjoyed.
The Guruvayur Cult
Prevalent in Kerala, it is defined as an offshoot of the
Vaishnava Bhakti cult, originally founded by Puntanam and Melpathur
Bhattathiri. While the former composed the Jnanapana in Malayalam, the latter
wrote the Narayaneeyam in Sanskrit, basing it on Patanjali yoga and the Bhagavatham.
As Mathur explains - A quintessential expression of this history, the Sri
Krishna cult of the Zamorin of Calicut found its lasting manifestation in the
monumental Sri Krishna temple at Guruvayur. The Guruvayur cult has been hailed
for visvapapahatya, removal of earthly sufferings, and the bestowal of saukhyam
and avesam, earthly well-being and pleasure, leading to anandam, or heavenly
bliss.
Sacred Complex of the Guruvayur Temple - PRG Mathur
The Guruvayur Cult – JOKS Vol 6, 1979 KV Krishna Ayyar
The Voice of Guruvayur – Historical background - CN Menokki
Guruvayur – JOIH 1962 KV Krishna Ayyar
The History of Guruvayoor – KV Krishan Ayyar
Heaven on Earth - The Universe of Kerala's Guruvayur Temple - Pepita Seth
Zamorins of Calicut – UB Nair
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