The Mysterious Pakkanar

Although many Malayalis are familiar with this fascinating character from folklore, and quite a few probably know of Naranathu Branthan (who is similar to the Greek mythological figure Sisyphus), his brother, the lunatic from Palghat, I haven't come across any thorough studies on Pakkanar. Kottarathil Sankunni introduced him in his Aithihyamala. Kundur Narayana Menon published parts of Pakkanar Pattu many years ago, and recently Rajan Chungath wrote about the entire clan.

Few realize that Jacome Fenicio (Giacomo Fenizio), the Portuguese/Italian friar who served at Arthunkal and Calicut, introduced him to the wider world for the first time early in the 17th century. Although Fenicio claims to have documented about 300 of the 900 verses attributed to Pakkanar and used them in his religious debates with Brahmin priests at Calicut and possibly Arthunkal in Alleppey, we haven't found many of these in his existing written records. They may be stored in a European archive, as we currently only have an edited version that covers early myths about Hindu gods. Still, let's try to get a clear picture of this legendary figure, Pakkanar, explore some of his stories, and then wrap it all up with Fenicio's role.

Although born into the lower-caste Parayan community, he appears to have mastered the Vedas and other significant religious texts of his era, and it seems that the name Pakkanar was given out of respect, even by the upper castes. There are no solid historical records about him, and he remains somewhat of a myth. Now, let's start with the myth, which is especially interesting because Pakkanar and his kin lived without major caste conflicts (each caste carried out its duties). He seems to have commanded respect despite being very low on the caste hierarchy.

As we discussed earlier, a myth is a symbolic, sacred story usually involving gods or supernatural beings, believed to be true in the past. A legend is a traditional story regarded as historical but lacking strong evidence, often linked to a real person or event and usually exaggerated over time. Lore, on the other hand, encompasses a wide range of myths, legends, and various kinds of folklore. This story can, in theory, be all of those.

There are a few versions often cited by writers. The myth told by Kundur slightly differs from that of Kottarathil Sankunni, especially regarding the angels or Devatas on the tree. Still, they share many similarities.

Govindapadar, Sankaracharya's guru, had sons from each of his four wives, who belonged to different castes (There are other versions about the origin of Varuchi). From the Brahmin wife, he had Varuchi; from the Kshatriya wife, he had Vikramaditya; from the Vysya wife, it was Bhatti; and through the Sudra wife, it was Bhartruhari. One might wonder how he managed to marry women from different castes at that time, or why, but let's follow the story.

Vikramaditya became a king, and Varuchi ended up working in his palace. One day, it seems Vikramaditya asked Varuchi to recite the most important verse from the Ramayana. Unable to come up with a clear answer, Varuchi was lost in thought, and the king gave him 41 days to find one. The wise Varuchi was upset that he couldn't answer and wandered around the country searching for one. Forty days passed, and finally, a tired Varuchi sat down to rest under a large banyan tree in a forest, drifting off to sleep. Some angels or devatas hanging out in the tree started talking among themselves that the sleeping Varuchi would soon marry the daughter of a Paraya woman, and that the answer to the question bothering Varuchi was actually the verse which went like this - 'Ramam Dasharatham Viddhi.. maam, Viddhi janakatmajam, Ayodhyam atavim Viddhi, Gacha tatha yadhaa sukham'.

Varuchi, who had just dozed, heard all of this and, filled with joy, hurried to the palace, recounting the verse along with ten different interpretations. He also stressed that the most crucial part of the verse was 'maam, viddhi janakatmajam' – that is, consider Sita (janakatmaja) as myself, Sumitra.

The explanation goes like this: After saying goodbye to Dasaratha, Kausalya, and Kaikeyi, the exiled trio of Rama, Lakshmana, and Sita went to meet Sumitra, the third queen and Lakshmana's mother. She tells Lakshmana, "Think of Rama as Dasaratha, your father, and Sita as me. Look upon the forest (Atavi—where you are now going to live) as Ayodhya. Farewell to you, and may your journey be a blessed one!" In simple terms, it summarizes to 'be happy where you are'.

However, the prophecy that he would have to marry a Paraya girl upset Varuchi. After obtaining permission from the king and tracking down the newborn girl he was supposed to marry, his henchmen sent her floating on a banana stem raft with a 'kol vilakku' (a lamp strung on a brass pole) embedded in her skull. As you might have guessed, the girl did not die and was rescued from the riverbank by a Brahmin woman from the Naripetta mana at Paruthur on the Nila bank. The woman took care of the girl, who was then named Panchami. She grew up to be a beautiful, intelligent girl. Again, as you might have guessed, some years later, Varuchi, passing by (again, the story is charmingly different in Sankunni's telling), becomes enamored with the lovely girl (due to her intelligence, says Sankunni) and marries her, as fate had dictated.

Some days after a life of marital bliss, Varuchi notices a strange scar on the skull of his newlywed wife. As he listened to her story, he realized that this was the very girl he had cast off and exactly what the angels had foretold! Ashamed of his previous actions, he excommunicated himself, left his home, and after a long journey, settled with his wife on the banks of the Nila (Bharatapuzha) River in Malabar.

Along the way, they had many children. As each child was born, Varuchi would ask his wife if the child had a mouth, to which his wife would answer, "Yes." Varuchi would say, 'Well, if he has a mouth, he will survive, leave the kid in the forest, and let's get on.' The distraught mother did what was asked of each of their 11 children (it must have been a long trek, perhaps lasting some 20 years!). When they had a 12th child, the mother decided that enough was enough and lied that the kid had no mouth, and lo and behold – the child's mouth disappeared! Varuchi consecrated the child in stone on a nearby hillock, which over time was worshipped as the Vayilla Kunnil Appan deity at Thiruvazhiyode (Kadampazhipuram). A distraught Panchami committed suicide at Mannur in Palghat (the place is called Theeppattu kuzhi).

The 11 kids who were left in the forest were taken in by foster parents from 11 different castes, and they grew up in diverse backgrounds. These children later became known as Parachi/Parayi petta panthiru kulam (the 12 castes born from a Parayi's womb) in the Malabar region. In another version, after all the excitement and travel, Varuchi and his wife settled into a life of penance and disappeared from view. The 11 surviving children, knowing each other, got along well and would meet every year at Melathol Agnihotri's (one of the 11 children) house in Ponnani for their parents' annual rites.

The 11 children and their castes were - Melathol Agnihothri (Namboothiri), Pakkanar (Parayan), Rajakan (Washerman), Naranath Bhranthan (Ambalavasi), Karakkalamma (Kshatriya and the only girl child), Akavoor Chathan (Vaishnava), Vaduthala Nair (Soldier), Vallon (Pulaya), Uppukottan (Muslim), Paananaar (folk musician), Perumthachan (Carpenter, Architect).

Pakkanar was a skilled bamboo craftsman who specialized in bamboo weaving. Just a short distance from Mezhathol Agnihothri's home, Vemancheri Mana in Thrithala, Palakkad, is the still-existing Paakkanar colony, also known as Eerattinkal Paraya colony, adjoining Arikkunnu. The story goes that it was Paakkanar who actually created a "Thampraakkal" out of "Azhvanchery Thamprakkal", who is considered the head of the Namboothiris in the region. Over time, caste differences became obvious, and the upper-caste brothers and their wives felt ashamed to dine with the lower-caste brothers and their families during the annual rites. So when they gathered, they stayed in ten different rooms of the Mezhathol mana.

To learn about Pakkanar, one must explore some of the myths surrounding him.

Ganga and the Stick – A Brahmin going on a pilgrimage to Ganga asked Pakkanar if he had anything to be cast away in the holy waters (the concept was to wash away all bondages in Ganga, and free oneself). Pakkanar gave his walking stick to him to be cast off at the Ganga. When the Brahmin returned, Pakkanar took him to the pond next to his home and pulled out the stick, proving that there was no need to go to a distant Ganga for absolution, and that all waters were equally holy.

Siva, Parvathi, and the gold – An ardent devotee of Siva, Pakkanar's poverty evoked pity in Parvathi's heart, and she asked Shiva to gift him some gold. Shiva told her that Pakkanar was a wise man and believed that wealth is a destroyer of men. To test this idea, the gods filled some bamboo stems with gold and gems. When Pakkanar's axe split them open, they spilled out, and a shocked Pakkanar left his axe there and ran away. Some passing robbers gathered the gold, but in their greed, they ended up killing each other instead of sharing the loot, proving that wealth can be a deadly force.

The ten murams (winnow) tradition — Pakkanar would always weave ten murams and set out to sell them. He would ask for an exorbitant price for each, and when the buyer demurred, he would leave one behind and move on to the next house, and the next, until nine were gifted. The tenth would be sold at a nominal price, and with these modest earnings, Pakkanar led his contented and straightforward life. The moral of this story is that if he had made only one muram, he would have been leading a lazy life. Doing what one should and can, without expecting significant returns, leads to more contentment in life. So, be happy with what you get—his philosophy was, but do what you can. Many families in the region still observe the tradition of 'returning' to Pakkanar. The Erattingal families continue the 10-winnow custom during festive seasons.

Cows' Udders and the Kovakka Vegetable – During one of the annual feasts with the brothers, Pakkanar brought a couple of cow udders to be cooked, horrifying the wife of the Aginihotri. She refused to cook them and buried the udders. When Pakkanar asked where his udder dish was, the woman explained what had happened, and Pakkanar said that the udders would have already sprouted into plants. Sure enough, the plant had grown and produced udder-shaped vegetables, now known as Kovakka, which were then cooked and served as a vegetarian dish by the lady of the house.

A few more of these fables can be found, such as the one about a wife's faith and devotion, Azvanchery's story, and others. I will go into more detail about them some other time, along with stories of the other brothers of Pakkanar and their only sister, Karakkalamma.

While many believe this was a myth created during the Chera era, there is a substantial historical connection in the lands around the Nila where these 11 children lived. The Erattingal families at Arikkunninode in Thrittala still claim lineage to Pakkanar and are situated near the Mexhathol Agnihotri homestead (it seems he did not want to stray far from his brother). These Paraya families share a relationship with the Namboothiri family through (pula) pollution. It is also believed that the Paraya caste is named after the drum they played—seemingly, they were royal drummers who beat large 'para' drums. Later, they took up bamboo weaving. Other legends mention that he was the elephant doctor of the Chera army, that he belonged to the same family, and was actually a Nambuthiri who had been downgraded to Mussad because he was responsible for the flesh sacrifices practiced in ancient times.

It's also notable that a Christian missionary claims to have encountered about 800-900 verses related to Pakkanar, but only 4-5 are listed in all 20th- and 21st-century publications.

Let's now examine the conclusions reached after a genetic study was conducted to determine if any real facts are hidden in the stories. More details about this can be read in my article "The Wandering Y".

Why mention this? Since all the descendants of these children lived in Shornur, Pattambi, and Thrithala of the Palakkad district in Kerala, and despite differences in their caste and social status, these families are connected through various rituals and religious customs. These families were the focus of a study. Still, when the group led by Suresh collected genetic samples to examine the patterns, they actually found that the results contradicted the folktale. Common haplotypes were not found across the tested families, making it impossible to establish co-ancestry.

This suggests that genetic sampling and studies are not always conclusive over many generations, and therefore, hype about genetic studies is unwarranted. The authors concluded that considering the survival of a lineage from a single founder over 20 generations (roughly 700 years) is only 9.6%, the chance of survival for Vararuchi's lineage, which is believed to have started about 1600 years ago (approximately 45 generations), is very low. On the other hand, it's also possible that the haplogroups of the different families who adopted Vararuchi's children were different and that multiple men from their own families were involved at the time of adoption. The true descendants of Vararuchi's sons may have become extinct over time due to various genetic or social reasons, or they may have greatly declined compared to the descendants of their own family line. Alternatively, the Vararuchi story might be just a myth.

Now, let's see how the Italian Jesuit Jacome Finicio, who arrived in Malabar in 1583, initially worked at Arthungal and later spent several years in Calicut, became involved with the Pakkanar legend. In Calicut, he was involved in numerous intrigues, sometimes acting as a diplomat for Portuguese Goa, and was close to the Zamorin. He discovered that convincing the people of Calicut that his religion, Christianity, was quite challenging. The Brahmin and Nair aristocracy scoffed at his preachings, and that was when he found the teachings of Pakkanar useful.

Let's examine what he concluded based on the translation provided by Charpentier, The Livro de Seita, p. 185, note 8.

For in times past there was a great poet in Malabar, who, though not a Christian, as far as we know, yet left some written books, showing therein the great knowledge he had of things divine. In fact, he composed some 800 octaves against the idols and false gods of those lands, where he pleasantly laughs at their fables, and in the same manner, he treats of Divine Providence, Heaven, Hell, and other matters of our faith, according to what we believe, at least in many points. He says of the Providence of God that he gives to each one what is necessary according to his quality and that he assists us always with his presence and protection, in the same manner as he does who holds the rope for those who are fishing pearls. Of Heaven, he says that it consists in the vision of God; of Hell, that the damned will remain there 400 million years, plunged in fire, and yet always alive. As to the idols, he constantly sneers at them and calls the Brahmins fools.

The Father (Fenicio), having come across this book, copied more than 300 octaves in 1609, though many more are lost; and cleverly used them and read them in the presence of the Gentiles, both privately and publicly, so that they were confused and did not know what to answer." However, the edition by Jarl Charpentier, Livro da seita dos Indios orientais (Uppsala, 1913), although useful, is unfortunately not complete and lacks proper interpretation overall.  

In the following article, I will share the stories of other children and provide a conclusion detailing the impact the story had on the history of Malabar.

References

Paraiyipetta  Panthiru Kulam – Aithihyavum, Chatritravum – Rajan Chungath

Pakkanar – Kundur Narayana Menon

Aithihyamala – Kottarathil Sankunni

A Treatise on Hindu Cosmography from the Seventeenth Century - Jarl Charpentier

Preliminary Report on the "Livro da Seita dos Indios Orientais" - Jarl Charpentier

The Jesuits in Malabar – D Ferroli

The Intach Palghat 2025 calendar – Some lucky people would have come across a lovely calendar produced by Sanusha & Arun at Intach Palghat, which covers the entire Parayi petta story, through top-notch illustrations. The illustration of Pakkanar included here is a result of their hard work, and is duly acknowledged with thanks and reproduced with permission. Please do not copy without Intach's approval.

 

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An Electrifying Experience

Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, ABB, Hitachi, and me…

The other day, I visited some historic sites related to Tesla and Westinghouse, which brought back memories of my time at ABB and Hitachi, both of which had links to Westinghouse over the years. While you might find stories about Tesla, Edison, and Westinghouse in many American books, magazines, and articles, there are hardly any about how Westinghouse eventually merged with the European ABB and, later, the Japanese Hitachi.

The last two decades of the 19th century saw a convergence of scientists, inventors, and industrialists working to harness electricity for lighting and powering rotating machines. While listing all those involved, fighting over their inventions, and patenting their ideas would take up a lot of space, the most prominent names are Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse. Another key figure connected to both is the highly admired Serbian Nikola Tesla. Interestingly, Edison was never formally educated and started his career as a newspaper boy, eventually becoming a publisher; however, he always made time to read about science. His fascination with telegraphy began in 1862, and by the age of 22, he had obtained his first patent for a vote counter. Eight years later, he had established his own companies.

A series of inventions followed, and when telephony was developed, Edison was working on modifications to microphones and the phonograph. Around 1878, he was introduced to an electric generator, which lit arc lamps, by another inventor named William Wallace. From that point on, power generation and lighting became his primary focus, leading to rivalries, numerous court cases, and what later became known as the 'War of currents.' Edison supported and believed in working with Direct Current, or DC. He worked on improving a filament for the electric bulb that could be mass-produced and last a long time, as well as enhancing the generating and power distribution systems. In 1879, he patented the light bulb, and by 1882, he had electrified parts of New York.

George Westinghouse, just a year older than Edison, too, had limited education and served in the US Navy until 1865. His first patent was for a farm steam engine, and he later invented the 'frog,' a device that helped trains cross tracks. His subsequent major development was the air brake for trains. One of his early supporters was the Vanderbilt family, and Westinghouse eventually established his operations in Pittsburgh. Afterward, he spent several years developing natural gas safety systems and continued to work on train signaling systems. Around 1885, while reading a report on the "International Inventions exhibition" in England, Westinghouse learned about the Gaulard Gibbs transformer and its ability to transfer electric power. Intrigued, he began studying the field eagerly.

Soon, he learned that Gaulard and Gibbs had successfully electrified parts of Turin, Italy, and transmitted power over about 50 miles. He quickly bought an AC generator made by Werner von Siemens and two G&G transformers. He hired an Englishman named Belfield to come to smoky Pittsburgh (all due to the iron industry) to help his engineer Stanley, who was working on lighting projects. In 1886, he founded the Westinghouse Electric Company, bought the G&G transformer patent, and redesigned the transformer as we know it today. Stanley and Belfield rapidly developed the first single-phase AC system, where a 25 HP steam engine generator produced power, raised it to 500V, transmitted it across town, lowered it to 100V, and lit 150 bulbs.

Edison, too, entered the field after purchasing a patent from a Hungarian trio, ZBD (Zipernovsky, Bláthy, and Déri), but AC did not interest him. Seeing that Westinghouse was successfully working with AC, and assuming that Westinghouse was promoting it only to bypass his (Edison's) patents, Edison responded by claiming that AC was dangerous. He also leveraged his connections to the media to suggest that many people could die if they worked with AC. However, his efforts to scare people did not quite have the desired effect.

Although we discussed DC, AC, and arc lights, the concept of an AC motor was still not fully developed in practice. DC motors existed and were used for transit applications. Once again, the first invention came from Turin, Italy, where Ferraris conceived the idea of a two-phase motor in 1885. In 1888, Westinghouse bought the patent from Ferraris for a small sum. It was at this point that a new player entered the scene: Nikola Tesla from Serbia.

Nikola Tesla (b. 1857), after an incomplete education and brief stints in Budapest working as a draftsman and electrician in the Central Telephony Department, and in Paris for Edison's lighting division, decided to move to the United States in 1884 for better opportunities. He joined the Edison Machine Works in New York but left after a few months, reportedly due to a dispute over an unpaid bonus related to the development of an arc lighting system. His attempt to start a company failed, and Tesla was nearly homeless, forced to do menial work. In 1887, Tesla patented his two-phase, self-starting induction motor (as well as a three-phase, 6-wire motor).

Westinghouse, who was searching for such a design, had previously tested prototypes created by the Italian Galileo Ferraris. He now decided to license Tesla's design and hired him at his Pittsburgh plant. Tesla later agreed that his design was similar to Ferrari's, but Tesla's had already been patented in the US. Nevertheless, Westinghouse faced many issues with Tesla's design because it was made for 60Hz. At the same time, Westinghouse systems and the Shallenberger meter were all suitable for a power frequency of 133Hz.

In 1891, Westinghouse engineers, led by Lamme, finally agreed on 60 Hz as their new power frequency, marking a departure from their previous standard of 133 Hz. That same year, AEG engineers in Berlin chose 50 Hz as their new power frequency. One reason was that arc light carbons used at that time did not perform well with 50 Hz. Other frequencies considered were 133, 30, and 60 Hz. The Westinghouse systems were then redesigned for a frequency of 60 Hz, mainly due to pressure from Tesla, who strongly advocated for changing from 133 Hz to 60 Hz.

The topic of frequency selection is complex and best explained in the detailed paper by Edward L. Owen. It discusses how the world had systems operating at various frequencies and how they gradually converged toward two main standards over time. Owen summarizes: There were many standard frequencies in use, even as recently as 20 years ago (1977). The outcome was determined by field operating conditions, not by the exploitation of specific systems to limit competition. Engineers focused on fixing defects rather than competing with each other.

Thus, we see Westinghouse electrifying cities with his 2-phase AC systems, while Edison continued with his DC concept. The competition turned unhealthy when copper prices made DC systems (which used much more copper) uncompetitive.

Although Edison attempted to tarnish Westinghouse's reputation and designs, he was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, Westinghouse faced financial difficulties when the banking industry collapsed in 1890, which halted further work on a Tesla motor. Several years later, Westinghouse purchased the Tesla patent for $216,000 and also signed a patent-sharing agreement with Edison's General Electric. Tesla moved on to work on new projects, including his Tesla Coil, wireless lighting, wireless power, remote control, and other ventures.

Meanwhile, AEG's Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed a three-phase system in 1888-89, using three wires instead of six. He also perfected the Delta Star three-phase transformer but faced challenges with the three-phase motor, which he finally solved by using the squirrel cage design to reduce eddy currents. At this point, an engineer of English origin named Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown, working in Switzerland, teamed up with Dobrovolsky, Miller, and, with the support of the German government and a cement company, built the very first complete three-phase system, including a 15 KV transmission line 175 km long, which was celebrated in Europe as a remarkable achievement.

Brown and Dobrovolsky ended their cooperation around this point. Brown managed the English-speaking media effectively (Dobrovolsky struggled), then appeared to claim that the system's success was due to his efforts with Tesla's backing (Tesla was not truly involved). Brown mentioned Tesla's name mainly because there was a Tesla craze at the time, driven by the success of the Tesla Coil and the widespread belief that wireless power transmission might soon become common. Across the Atlantic, as seen in 1892, Lamme at Westinghouse in the U.S. agreed on 60Hz and optimized the two-phase motor. From that point on, Westinghouse used Tesla's good reputation to promote his work, especially two-phase systems.

It was indeed Tesla who proposed a design for the first three-phase motor and generator, and who also patented a two-phase and three-phase six-wire motor-generator in 1888. Still, if someone were to ask who demonstrated the 4-wire 3-phase electric generation, transmission, and distribution, as well as the development of a squirrel-cage motor, the answer would be different. It was indeed Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky. GE, however, favored three-phase motors. There is more to the story, including the involvement of Steinmetz and others, but we will leave it for another day.

On the North American side, the Niagara connection between Canada and the US was initiated on the Canadian side by Henry Pellat in 1903, while the Adams plant on the US side first started generating power in 1895. Westinghouse built the plants. Strangely, they used a 25Hz polyphase (2-phase) system, which was eventually phased out after 60Hz became the standard in North America. 25Hz frequency was chosen as the standard because the turbines for the original Niagara Falls power project were already designed to operate at 250 RPM, which required a 25Hz generator to produce power. This initial decision, influenced by mechanical and industrial needs for motors and DC conversion, established a precedent in the region.

Dobrovolsky died unheralded, while Edison was ousted from the pioneering company when GE was created, following its acquisition by financier JP Morgan. Ultimately, three-phase power became the standard for electrical transmission worldwide, with North America maintaining a frequency of 60Hz, thanks to Tesla. Meanwhile, most of the rest of the world adopted 50Hz, except Japan, which used both frequencies because AEG and Westinghouse installed systems with 50 and 60Hz in the country. I won't delve into the War of Currents between Westinghouse and Edison, Tesla's other major inventions and discoveries, the Nobel Prize dispute, or related topics; instead, I will move on to Europe and continue with Brown.

In 1887, Brown, the technical director of MFO (Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon), decided to start his own business. Following his association with Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Brown co-founded the company Brown, Boveri & Cie with Walter Boveri in Baden, Switzerland, in 1891. After Brown retired, Boveri served as Chairman of the BBC from 1911 to 1924. He led various electricity companies, and his work on railway electrification earned him a seat on the board of the Swiss Federal Railways. Boveri's sons, Theodor and Walter Junior, later took on various roles at BBC. Walter's brother Robert (1873-1934) headed a subsidiary, BBC Mannheim, in Germany, for several years until his death. Robert's son, William Boveri, also worked at BBC as a director.

BBC achieved significant success in post-war Europe, especially in Italy and many other regions, including the Middle East. Their solid designs in the power, radio, and railway sectors were popular in numerous countries. By the 80s, it was known as the grand old lady of Switzerland, continuing to hire top-tier immigrant engineers but generating little profit.

Now, you have seen brief histories of Westinghouse, General Electric, AEG (partially), and BBC in Switzerland, along with their connections to one man—Nikola Tesla, whose name they all used or referenced. Siemens, English Electric, and many other organizations also made significant contributions to this sector, but their stories are not covered in this article.

Now, let's go to Sweden, where a young Jonas Wenström led the way in developing a power system for his country. In 1883, he co-founded Elektriska Aktiebolaget with Ludvig Fredholm, a well-known businessman, and patented his dynamo in 1884. In 1890, Elektriska merged with Wenström's brother's company to create Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget, later shortened to ASEA, with Västerås as its headquarters. As early as 1893, the young company was involved in building Sweden's first three-phase electrical transmission line, a 15 km, 9.5 kV line from a hydroelectric plant at Hällsjön to a mine in Grängesberg. Sadly, Jonas died in the same year at just 38.

Interestingly, Wenström also received a patent in 1890 for a three-phase system, just like Dobrovolsky did! In 1897, ASEA built the first electric locomotive. Ernst Danielson improved the designs, and the company grew rapidly, teaming up with De Laval. However, they soon faced financial struggles. The Wallenbergs and the Enskilda bank stepped in, and after some growth, ASEA became a well-known name. Still, it soon engaged in talks with European manufacturing cartels, including the match king, Sweden's Ivar Kreuger, and also connected with U.S. companies GE and Westinghouse. Still, it remained independent and maintained close ties to the Swedish Wallenberg family.

By the mid-20th century, the company had expanded to produce a wide range of electrical equipment, including generators, transformers, HVDC equipment, motors, industrial automation systems, nuclear power plants, trains, robots, presses, and synthetic diamonds. Manufacturing plants in Ludvika and Västerås thrived, and overseas investments and projects began to expand. In 1980, after acquiring Flakt, Percy Barnevik, who was working for Sandvik in the USA, became the CEO of ASEA, sparking a wave of rapid changes and acquisitions. Attempts to acquire AEG and GE's T&D in the U.S. were unsuccessful, but Stromberg from Finland and Elsag Bailey quickly joined the company, and profits rose significantly.

In 1987, Barnevik orchestrated a merger between ASEA and the Swiss company Brown Boveri, its main competitor in many markets. Barnevik needed scale to grow further, and BBC had a broader international presence. A year later, the merger of the two companies took place, followed by a period of some turmoil. The new company, headquartered in Zurich Oerlikon (later Baden), was named ABB – ASEA BROWN BOVERI.

A year later, ABB acquired the company we had initially discussed, Westinghouse Electric's power and transmission and distribution (T&D) operations, which faced financial difficulties and low margins. The next major ABB acquisition was the large Combustion Engineering in Houston, working with notable advisors such as Henry Kissinger and Donald Rumsfeld (who became a company director). The company struggled with issues such as asbestos and a weakening Asian economy, finding it difficult to integrate what it had acquired, possibly more than it could manage. With investments in the US and many other regions not performing as hoped, the company's profits declined, leaving the group vulnerable to strategic shifts.

Hitachi in Japan was established in 1910 by Namihei Odaira, starting as an electrical machinery manufacturer for a mining company. Namihei Odaira, during his free time that year while still working at the Kuhara mine, developed Japan's first 5-horsepower electric motor, together with a colleague. After World War II, it played a vital role in Japan's reconstruction by producing industrial machinery, including trains and power equipment. The company expanded into electronics, launching the first transistor-based computer in 1959. By the 1990s, it had become a global leader in semiconductor and memory device technologies. In 2018, Hitachi and ABB established a joint venture, which was formalized as Hitachi Energy in 2021. This joint venture was fully integrated into Hitachi in 2022.

Thus, developments in North America and Europe converged, created, and eventually led to the breakup of the companies we grew up with. Ongoing developments and demands regularly drive change, with players from diverse regions—such as Japan in Asia—joining European and American industry leaders. Discussions and innovations, sometimes influenced or accelerated by government policies, continue regularly, transforming the electrical landscape. I thought it would be a good idea to reflect on how all this unfolded—how 60Hz became the standard in the US, a brief overview of the DC-AC battles, the development of polyphase power transmission, and so on.

As for me, I began my career with ASEA in India, then worked with ABB after the BBC merger in the Middle East and Europe. I moved to the USA following the Westinghouse acquisition and eventually spent my final years with the organization formed through a merger with Japanese Hitachi. It was a fascinating career that allowed me to travel and experience many cultures across different countries.

Last week, as I stood in front of the historic generating station at Niagara, built by Westinghouse and Tesla, and looked at the old equipment, I couldn't help but marvel at how much has changed and how we still work with AC and also with high-voltage DC transmission—something Edison would have winked at. Not to mention the talks about wireless transmission, which Tesla would have eagerly embraced!

References

The lightning Tamers – Kathy Joseph

The Origins of 60-Hz as a Power Frequency by Edward L. Owen

Electrifying Experience – First Century of the ASEA group - 1883-1983

ABB the Dancing giant – Kevin Barham & Claudia Heimer

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Sambhar - Marathi or South Indian?

 Sambhar – the curry and its origins

The other day, we discussed the origins of Idli, and a few days later, I came across a different version of Rasam, popularized by a well-known wedding caterer, cook, chef, and restaurateur, Nataraja Iyer, which turned out quite good. (However, it should be even better with less jaggery next time.) This indicates that every basic recipe evolves over time, resulting in numerous variations, with each person having their own favorite. The same is true for Sambhar; there are different versions for special occasions, simpler powder-based recipes, and of course, the one we make in Palghat—the aracha or ground Sambhar. When it comes to ready-made powders, there are many options—spicier varieties, milder ones, the Kannada version with a hint of sweetness, and so on.

I dislike it when a North Indian tries to call it Sambhal! Just as our Vada seems to have become Bhara or Bhalla, Dosa has become Dhosa. Similarly, when a Gujarati complains that South Indian restaurants skimp on the Sambhar, serving only a small tumbler instead of a larger bowl. My Gujju friend brings about 10 mini idlis (about 3-4 cm wide) to the office, drops them into a bowl of Sambhar, and slurps them like soup with a spoon. An Iyer seeing this would be aghast, muttering 'enna ithu'—what an abomination! Adding—Eat it like it should be eaten, using a finger, tear off a quarter of a large idli, dip it in Sambhar and chutney, and chomp it, while you raise your eyes to survey the world around, then back to the plate for the next morsel, not with a fork or spoon....

Sadly, they may not realize that Sambhal-sambol (which we loved and ate with everything when we visited Sri Lanka) is actually a Lankan Sinhala coconut-based chutney. It’s very similar to the Kerala red thenga chammandi, and it is often pungently hot, sometimes flavored with lime, onions, fish paste, and more. There are many Sambal varieties, so I don't want to offend a Lankan with this simplified explanation.

But then, when you read that the Sambhar may have a Maharashtrian connection, you might be surprised. True, this has been discussed in mainstream media and many websites, but let me now share my perspective, referencing some food experts and historical sources.

According to a legend, Sambhaji, the eldest son and heir of Chhatrapati Shivaji, was visiting Shahuji, who ruled Tanjore (1682-1712), when he requested his usual dhal curry with rotis. The cook, or as some insist, Shahuji, added tamarind to the amti dal curry instead of kokum (and replaced Tuvar dhal with Mung), as these were the only locally available substitutes, and served the mixture to Sambhaji. This is said to be how the basic version of Sambhar was created. Conversely, Shahuji and Sambhaji, who were actually half-brothers, were on bad terms, so it’s surprising that Shahuji would go to such lengths or get involved in palace kitchen matters for such an event. Some suggest that Shahuji may have named the dish Sambhar after Sambhaji to help rebuild friendly relations between the two families. All of this sounds strange considering the timelines—Shahuji became king of Tanjore in 1684 at age 12, while Sambhaji, busy fighting the Mughals, was later captured and executed in 1689. If Sambhaji did visit Tanjore between 1684 and 1689 (though no records mention it), Shahuji would have been between 12 and 17 years old, an age when it’s unlikely he had any interest or involvement in cooking. Let’s leave it at that, concluding that although it may have Marathi connections, it was probably a Tanjavur invention!

After a series of wars and transitions, Serfoji II Bhonsle (also spelled Sarabhoji II Bhonsle) took control, supported by the British, in 1798. Serfoji II's three-decade reign is best known for his contributions to art, literature, and cuisine. It's no surprise that another legend suggests Serfoji II himself created Sambhar after experimenting with lentil soup and adding tamarind. Interestingly, most of his culinary efforts are documented in the cooking diaries—Sarabendra Pakashastra, a collection of recipes from the royal kitchens at Tanjore, preserved at the Sarasvati Mahal library as two manuals compiled by Serfoji’s scribes in Marathi (using Modi script) in the 1820s. One Bhim Rao from the Sarasvati Mahal library apparently mentioned that Sambhar was originally called Sambhachi ahar—Sambha’s food—and that this name evolved into Sambhar over time. Was Sambha supposedly Sambhaji? It is not clear.

While these are popularly narrated versions, it is quite possible that the name originated from Marathi / Gujarati/Sanskrit usages. The word itself has no connection to any Tamil usages from the past (Tamils had mainly Kuzhambu for such curries), and it is quite possible that the name "saambhaar" came from one of the above languages. It could be a derivative of the Sanskrit root usage sambhara (Malayalam - sambharanam), meaning ‘a collection’.

Geeta Bharatan concurs - The primary meaning of saṃbhāra is a collection or assemblage of items, especially ingredients or materials needed for a specific purpose. Perhaps the curry was ritually offered to the King, and hence a Ritual offering. In a Hindu context, sambhara can denote the collection of materials and offerings required for a sacrifice. The word also refers to the act of putting something together or arranging it. The South Indian dish "Sambhar" likely derives from this Sanskrit word, referring to the various constituents of the stew.

Although the Sambhar name is associated with this curry, it is distinctly Deccan or Tamil in nature, characterized by the use of tamarind and other local spices. That must be how a parippu puli kuzhampu made with Tuvar dhal became the Sambhar of today.

Acharya’s Historical dictionary defines it thus - A fairly thick spicy extract of thuvar dhal soured with tamarind, frequently containing soft vegetables like the brinjal, drumstick, gourd, and lady’s finger. It is served in South India with rice as a middle course, after a course of rice with rasam and before a course of rice with curds. Sambhar is also eaten as an accompaniment to the idli and vada. The Kannada term for the dish is huli and the Telugu, pulusu. The Tamil country has a premixed sambhar & rasam, convenient for travel, and Karnataka has the bisibele-huli-anna, best eaten with ghee. However, I don’t believe that is the correct order in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, as the rasam typically follows the Sambhar course.

Many versions exist, and the vegetables included vary by region. In Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka, traditional vegetables are used, while in South Kerala, potatoes, cauliflower, or carrots are sometimes included, especially in the Travancore area. In Karnataka, a bit of jaggery is often added. Kerala and Karnataka grind roasted spices with coconut to create a flavorful mixture, though it's milder due to the coconut. Meanwhile, Tamil and Andhra versions tend to be spicier and tangier. In Malabar and Palghat, brinjal, ladies' fingers, drumsticks, and shallots are key ingredients in their sambhar. Other regions add exotic vegetables like bitter gourd, keerai, radish, kovakkai, and even garlic. Hing, also known as asafoetida, is always an important adder, providing zest and a pungent aroma.

We should also verify if there are any historical references to the curry. It appears that a Telugu poem written by the Vijayanagara king Krishnadeva Raya mentions the word "Sambharampuchintapandu." Srinivas Sistla, who studied this, states that there are references to "Sambhar ingredients packed in separate packs, jaggery, tamarind paste" when describing the food that Periyalvar's wife packs at Srivilliputhur in present-day Tamil Nadu. The Sabdaratnakaramu (1885), a dictionary, and Vedam Venkataraya Sastry's commentary (1927) on the poem also interpret the word in the same way. Based on this evidence, Sistla theorizes that Sambhar was likely part of Tamil cuisine by the 16th century.

K. T. Achaya also notes that the earliest surviving reference to Sambhar, called "huli," dates back to the 17th century in present-day Karnataka. Kanthirava Narasaraja Vijaya, a 1648 work by Kannada scholar Govinda Vaidya, mentions huli (puli), which literally means "sourness," a curry similar to modern Sambhar made with vegetables and tuvar dal. This suggests that the curry was present in Tamil regions, Deccan, and Vijayanagara even before the Mahrattas arrived at Tanjore in the 17th century, although it may not have been called Sambhar then. If ‘huli’ was a version of the early Sambhar, then the humble mulagu varutha puli koottan of Palghat, which was never served to a guest, should be similar—yet I believe it is not. It is a simple mix of tamarind and salt, with boiled vegetables.

There are also mentions that Sangam period cooking included Thuvaram paruppu kalavai (paruppu kulambu) and Mohana Kalavai (with tender coconuts), which could be considered early versions of Sambar. Sambhar contained red chilies introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century. So, how was it made before the Portuguese arrived? Maybe using black pepper? I am not entirely sure.

In the Andhra regions, where food was also influenced by Nizami cuisine, there's dalcha, which includes meat, kaddu (pumpkin), and chana dal, as well as tamarind and a spice mix similar to Sambhar masala. These Hyderabadi Muslim versions of Sambhar, once popular also in Orissa, are now quite common in Malaysia. The Malaysian version was popularized by Muslim cooks, resulting in a distinct variation.

The Japanese learned a few things about curries from Rash Behari Bose and AM Nair, and today Kari rice is part of their cuisine, though it is not Sambhar rice. It should also be noted that they did not pick up the word Sambhar from the Tamil laborers during the war. Nevertheless, they named the mini truck manufactured by Subaru as Sambhar (nothing to do with the curry, though), so when you use the term in Japan, you may end up seeing a truck!

Another interesting piece of trivia is that Sambhar was added to the menu for Indian space travelers, along with Idli and Chutney! The DFRL, based in Mysore, developed Sambhar Chawal, along with several other Indian dishes, such as Sooji Halwa, Veg Biryani, Katti Rolls, and more, for its 60-item selection for astronauts.

Some Kerala versions

Sambhar arrived in Kerala much later, as the Sadya listing in Cochin’s Shaktan Thampuran period mainly mentions Erisseri, Kalan, Olan, etc., all of which were prepared without red chilli—a spice that arrived with the Portuguese in the 16th century and became a staple in the Tamil versions of Rasam and Sambhar. Interestingly, the use of red chillies never gained popularity in Kerala, despite the Portuguese presence in Cochin, until much later. It is also strange that the British never made any real mention of the dish; although there are references to Sambhar (a lentil and pigeon pea stew), they did not go beyond a broad name, curry, and Madras curry powder, which may have been a type of Sambhar powder with plenty of garam masala.

The coconut-based ‘arachuvitta’ (varutharacha or ground) Sambhar is popular in Nair and Iyer households of Palghat and is now often included in home cooking or ‘athu chamayal. There is a subtle variation in tadka styles, with some using hing and others using methi seeds, along with curry leaves, red chilies, and mustard. Most use coconut oil (or sesame oil in Tamil regions), but during festive occasions, Brahmins typically use ghee. Udupi Sambhar will have a touch of jaggery to mellow down the taste.

Arachuvitta and Varutharacha Sambhar: In these special variations, whole spices and coconut are roasted and ground into a paste before being added to the Sambhar, as a core flavor element. This creates a deeper, richer aroma than simply adding the ground powder. Bengal gram, coriander seeds, tuvar dal, methi seeds, red chilies, and other ingredients are dry-roasted and ground with grated coconut to make the spice paste. This paste is then boiled with tamarind water before adding the appropriate vegetables. Though desiccated coconut was used by overseas Indians, it is rarely used in South India, and fresh coconut is preferred.

A Kerala Sadya begins with a small serving of rice, accompanied by yellow dal and ghee. The taste buds are then awakened by the Sambhar, slightly tempered down by the salty pappadams. This is then followed by some rasam that provides valuable digestive acids, before being cooled down in the next course with a generous helping of yogurt or curds. Finally, you are carried to nirvana by one or two payasams (kheer).

A recent article by Vijish Gopinath calls sambhar the main star in the culinary drama we know as the sadya, but I am not sure it can overshadow all the side dishes, such as aviyal and kootu kari, not to mention the thoran and olan.

The excellent article by Vijish in a recent Vanitha magazine traces the journey of the Sambhar as it evolved from Kasargod to Trivandrum. While the Northern Udupi Brahmin versions have a bit of ghee and jaggery added to mellow the flavor, versions further south show an increased use of coconut and fewer dals. Tomato and Hing are common in most versions, but subtle differences exist depending on the maker's caste. A Nair Sambhar is distinctly different from a brahmin or Thiyya Sambhar, differing in spice ratios and vegetables. By the time the sambhar reaches South Travancore, most consider it a transformed version, not fully accepted by purists (in jest) as true sambhar. As you head south, the quantity and size of vegetables increase, resulting in a spicier and thicker vegetable curry. Muslims, on the other hand, simply call it a vegetarian curry, usually not considered as sophisticated as Malabar’s fish curries. There’s even a fish sambhar version served at the Samudra Feast in the Ambika hotel at Calicut.

In my opinion, the perfect Sambhar is the Palghat Sambhar, and the magazine agrees, stating that the Trichur Sambhar, which is a close second, is somewhat diluted. Palghat incidentally has three varieties: the Tamil version, the Brahmin Agraharam version, and the Nair version.

Tiffin Sambhar is a quick and easy recipe, perfect for idlis and vadas, which eliminates the need for ground ingredients by using powdered spices and dhal to save prep time. Tiffin Sambhar (or Idli Sambhar) is a thinner, milder, and often less tangy version, specifically made for breakfast dishes. In contrast, regular Sambhar is usually thicker, spicier, and contains more vegetables, intended to be eaten with rice.

I believe I have made my point, and the next time someone claims it is a Marathi dish, you can respond with some arguments to the contrary.

References

KT Acharya – Indian Food: A Historical Companion and A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food

Vanitha – Onam Mood, Sambhar Vibe – Vijish Gopinath

Maddy’s ramblings – Idli, a delectable dish

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Neelikatha - Myth or Legend

Panchavankadu Neeli a.k.a Kalliankattu Neeli 

Two days ago, we watched the exciting Malayalam film Lokah – Chapter 1, starring Kalyani Priyadarshan, and it was a fantastic experience. Kalyani brought the character to life vividly on screen as Chandra, an incarnation of the Venad Yakshi - Kalliyankattu Neeli, as a modern-day action heroine fighting evil. If you haven't seen it, you should check out this film; it's best enjoyed on a large theater screen with good sound quality.

Vijayaraghavan, in a minor role, retells the popular Malayali and Tamil legend of Neeli and how she is eventually subdued, in the film adaptation. I remembered the story from my childhood when we first saw the Kalanilayam dramas Raktharakshassu (The Vampire) and Kadamattathu Kathanar. Those epic stage shows featured many interesting special effects and are still remembered by many from my generation and those who came before. However, I don't recall if the Raktharakshassu in the drama was specifically about Neeli.

About 15 years ago, I wrote an article about yakshis, drawing on various sources I had researched. Over the years, I noticed a few references here and there about these two related Yakshi stories. Still, I didn't think much of them until yesterday, when I remembered that Kottarathil Sankunni initially narrated the Kathanar story in his famous collection of tales and legends, Aithihyamala. I revisited it and found that the yakshi connected to the kathanar (priest) isn't Neeli but another called Panayanar Kavile Yakshi. How they got interconnected is still a mystery to me.

And so, here I am, after watching the movie, to retell the story of the two Yakshis for those who are unfamiliar with the original versions, specifically the stories of Panchavankad Neeli and the Panayanar Yakshi. This may be important for new generations, as the version in Lokah is somewhat different. I must emphasize that this does not significantly impact the overall concept of the Lokah screenplay, which is set in the present. This is simply information for those who want to learn more about the old Neeli.

Some might wonder whether these stories are myths, folklore, or legends; others may even ask what these terms mean. A myth is a symbolic, sacred story typically involving gods or supernatural beings and believed to be true in the past. A legend is a traditional story believed to be historical but lacking solid evidence, often associated with a real person or event and typically exaggerated over time. Lore, on the other hand, includes a wide range of myths, legends, and various types of folklore. Therefore, by definition, this story is mythical but has become somewhat of a legend.

The story of Neeli was originally sung orally in the Thekkan Pattu of Venad and was later printed when CV Raman Pillai wrote the novel on Marthanda Varma of Travancore in 1891. The story, which recounts events in Venad (Travancore) between 1727 and 1732, follows Prince Marthanda Varma's struggle against conspirators attempting to seize his throne. The Yakshis, however, date back to a time when the region was known as Nanjil Nadu, a period when Jainism flourished in the southern parts and the yakshi and Chattan cults were common. Densely forested, the area was home to many tribal communities. People mainly traveled on foot from place to place, with only the wealthy using palanquins, horses, and carts on better roads. I don’t intend to get into a detailed study of the cult, but I will retell Neeli's story based on the sources mentioned. It’s also impossible to assign a specific time to these stories; all we know is that they were passed down orally over many years, becoming hugely popular through the Thekkan Pattu (Southern ballads), especially during Marthanda Varma's reign, notably through the Villu Pattu (sung to the beat of a bow and a metal pot).

Neelikatha - From the Villu Pattu

The story begins at Ammappan Kovil in Pazhakainallur, with a famous Devadasi dancer named Sivakami. She had two children, Lakshmi and Thirukanda, with Lakshmi following her mother's footsteps to become a skilled dancer. The temple priest, Velavan Nampy, was smitten with the young girl and soon started spending time with her, lavishing her with wealth—wealth he had earned through both honest and dishonest means. Sivakami, her mother, accumulated all this wealth, and eventually, when it ran out, she expelled Velavan and forbade him from contacting Lakshmi. Velavan wandered into the forest, devastated and almost insane, while Lakshmi, unaware of all this, was grieving at home. Eventually, she learned of her mother's evil plans and, gathering some of the stolen wealth, set out to find her lover. She saw him lost in a thorny cactus forest, overwhelmed with grief. She fell at his feet and begged for his forgiveness, but Velavan, still furious, struck her with a stone and took her jewels, leaving her for dead. With only the cactus forest (Kallian kadu) in Agasteeswaram as a witness, Lakshmi bled to death. Velavan, moving on, reached a well. Thirsty, he did not notice a snake that crept near and bit him. He died shortly afterward. Adding to the tragedy, Thirukanda, who came by and saw his sister dead, also took his own life.

In the next rebirth, Velavan was born into a trader's family in Kaveri Poom Pattinam, named Ananthan. In contrast, Lakshmi and Thirukanda were born as the children of a Chola king, named Neeli and Neelan. In this incarnation, the king also abandons the children, who continue to harbor vengeance against the public, living in a neem tree and causing chaos among the villagers. Eventually, Ananthan encounters Neeli, and as expected, Neeli kills him. The evil spirit, thus satisfied, is contained in an idol at the Panchavankad Issaki Amman temple there.

From Marthanda Varma – the novel

In the Raman Pilla version, Neeli is a Nair girl seduced by a local Pattar, who convinces her to sell her house and join him in Padmanabhapuram. Together, the pregnant girl and the Pattar walk along the forest path.

At Panchavankadu, the exhausted girl sits down to rest on her husband's lap when the wicked man, deciding to abandon her and steal her ornaments and wealth, strikes her head with a stone. Waking up for the last time, she sees her husband holding their blood-stained stone, calls on the Cactus plants to be witnesses, swears revenge in her rebirth, and dies.

The Pattar, who had started a new life, plans a trip to Suchindram for a festival. As they walk along the forest path heading south and enter Panchavankadu, he spots the beautiful, alluring figure of Neeli. She seduces him with her looks and actions, leading him to follow her deeper into the forest. They eventually find a good spot where they settle down, and the roles are reversed, with the Pattar resting his head on the girl's lap. In an instant, the girl's form transforms into a terrifying vampire who then tears him apart and drinks all his blood. The stones remain there alongside the cactus plant, which was once a witness to her murder.

Venad Yakshikal – Ramesan Nair

Ramesan Nair locates the area west of the Collectorate at Ramavarma Puram in Nagercoil. The Nadukattu Ishaki Amman Koil is there. He explains that Pavizhanallor village, now called Pazhavur, used to have a temple. The story then follows a similar pattern – the priest falls for the temple dancer Neeli, who, with her mother's help, seduces the priest at her house and takes control of him. Eventually, the priest is driven out, but his sad, pregnant wife Neeli chases after him into the forest, where the story continues. She rests her head on his lap, and he hits it with a stone in the cactus forest – the Kalliyan Kadu. Later, while drawing water from a well, the ornaments fall in, and a snake bites him, causing his death. The mother looks for her daughter and witnesses the terrible sight, collapsing from grief.

He continues with a story about how Neeli then harassed wayward youth, greedy traders, and even Pathans who briefly waged war with the Travancore Raja. Later, the Yakshi instructed them to build a temple so she could retire in peace, which led to the construction of the Isakkiamman Kovil. Ramesan adds that there are many mentions of a great exorcist's involvement in Neeli's exorcism and her consecration, but he does not mention Kathanar.

Historically, the area was called Kazhuvanthittai because gallows once stood there, and men on death row were allowed to confess in front of Neeli one last time. Afterwards, a prayer was performed, and the man was hanged from the gallows. In front of the temple, a neem tree with a cradle hanging from one of its branches was once visible. Old-timers recall hearing lullabies sung by Neeli for her unborn child, rocking to sleep in that cradle.

That finally brings us to the story of Kadamattathu Kathanar. Although we hear of an exorcist who puts Neeli in her place, the Kathanar is associated with another Yakshi according to Sankunni and Ramesan Nair.

Kadamattathu Kathanar – K Sankunni

Sankunni started collecting the existing lore around the turn of the 20th century and wrote about Kadamattathu Kathanar – Poulose, the deacon from Kadamattam (near Muvattupuzha), between 1909 and 1930. Kadamattathu Kathanar is believed to have lived around 920-930 AD and is considered a renowned sorcerer, exorcist, and conjurer.

Many acts have been linked to him, including the subdual of the Panayanar Yakshi. Sankunni introduces Polulose, a young man who served as a deacon under the priest (believed to be Mar Sapor) and disappeared when the priest, along with the villagers, went in search of a cow taken by a tiger. During this journey, he is kidnapped by a cannibalistic tribe. The tribe's chief takes a liking to Poulose and accepts him into the tribe of naked hill people. Over the course of 12 years, Poulose learns the art of magic and sorcery from these expert tribespeople. Later, he asks the chief for permission to leave and visit his old priest, then departs the tribe to return to Kadamattom. After returning, he uses his knowledge of magic and other powers to help the villagers, gaining personal fame.

The Panayanar Yakshi preyed on travelers using the forest route from Anathapuram (Trivandrum) to Padmanabhapuram. (Note that Kalliyangad Neeli preyed on people between Padmanabhapuram and Kanyakumari). As her attacks increased, people turned to Kathanar for help. The Kathanar entered the forest searching for the maiden, and there she appeared in all her splendor, offering Kathanar betel leaves and asking for some lime – Chunnamb. Kathanar offered it on an iron nail, which she accepted with some trepidation. As soon as she did, she came under the deacon's control, and he promptly drove the nail into her skull, enslaving her. 

On the way back, Kathanar stopped to rest at his uncle's house. His aunt was enamored with the young damsel he was escorting and asked if she could stay with them to help. The deacon agreed and went for a nap. At that moment, the old aunt offered to comb the girl's hair. She noticed a nail in her skull, promptly pulled it out, and, to everyone's surprise, the girl was freed from the Kathanar's spell and regained her previous powers. The Kathanar woke up and followed her. She crossed the river and was hanging around Panayanar Kovil at Parumala when the Kathanar also arrived, breathless. Seeing the Kathanar, she offered to turn over a new leaf, swore to it, and then disappeared (or was consecrated in the idol), never to return or cause harm again. After this, she became popularly known as the Panayanar Kovil or Parumala Yakshi.

Kathanar continued to do other good deeds, but subduing Neeli was not, as I can see, one of them.

Panayanar Kavil Yakshi and the Kattur Namboodiri – Ramesan Nair

Ramesan Nair continues with the second part of the story. Kattur Neelakandhan Namboothiri, after Murajapam at the Padmanabha Swamy temple, was heading to the Shangumugham Bhagavathy temple for more prayers when he met a beautiful young woman. After some small talk, she admitted she was from Panayanar Kovil and had lost her way while on her way to Chottanikkara. She explained that the Kathnar had consecrated her in the idol, and when the priest accidentally spilled some holy water on her, she was freed from the idol. She then boarded a boat heading south and landed in the area, only to fall under the sacred bonds of the gods at Padmanabhapuram, Shangumugham, and Palkulam Bhagavathy. She asked Kattur to help her escape and take her to Kayamkulam, which the Namboothiri agreed to. Using some spells and powers he possessed, he contained her into his sindoor container and eventually freed her from captivity at Kayamkulam.

These are the stories of the two Yakshis: the vengeful Kalliyangaad Neeli and the more reasonable Panayanur Yakshi. From the locations where they were consecrated, two different temples, we can see that they were not the same. From the places they preyed on, we can also conclude that they were different.

Now we need to verify their timelines. We know that the Kathanar lived around 920-930 AD. Based on mentions of the Cholas and the absence of mentions of Travancore kings, we can estimate that Neeli predates the other yakshi, possibly dating back to the 5th-7th century. The Padmanabha Swamy Perumal temple is believed to date from the 7th-8th century. However, I must admit that as the story of Neeli continues till the Pathans' arrival in Travancore, it becomes unclear (perhaps Mukilan, which is set in the 17th century), so examining the timelines does not provide a clear conclusion.

Panayannar Kavu is very old and located near Parumala, surrounded by a tributary of the Pampa River. It is very close to Mannar village, on the Thiruvalla-Mavelikkara Road. Next to the temple, there is a consecration of the Parumala Yakshi, where she sits on a raised platform in an orchard with several trees.

Neeli, on the other hand, is a name that appears in many Tamil works, portraying a woman who becomes a 'pey' – a ghost. According to Jeyamohan, the writer, Neeli was consecrated by Naganandi Adiga, a Jain Monk, and the entire area around Kalliangad was developed after the Pechipara dam was built. The Isakkiamman (a tribal goddess) kovil is located on Muppandhal, south of Valliyur, on the route from Thirunelveli to Nagercoil. However, I am not sure if this is the real Neeli Kovil, because there is a specific Neeli Amman temple at Kalliangad.

Hopefully, those curious about the Neeli story are now familiar with the old versions, and you are prepared when the Chatan release occurs.

References

Kerala Sahitya Charitram – Ulloor S Parameswara Ayyar

Aithihyamala – Kottarathil Sankunni

Marthanda Varma – CV Raman Pillai

The story of Neeli – B Prasad

Venad Yakshikal – K Ramesan Nair

Further reading

The bewitching Yakshi  - Maddy's Ramblings

The Chatans of Malabar - Maddy's Ramblings

Kaliyangad Neeli temple location

The Evil Eye, Maddy's ramblings

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The Discovery of Brazil

Cabral, Pacheco or ?

Recently, I was discussing history with a Brazilian colleague of mine, and I mentioned Cabral's voyage to India, noting how he veered off course and ended up in Brazil, thereby being credited with the discovery of Brazil. My colleague, Ricardo, frowned after listening patiently and said that the issue remained contested, with differing opinions on the matter, and added that it was a topic frequently debated in Portuguese academic circles. Until then, I hadn't really stopped to think about the discovery of Brazil or studied the subject in depth. However, after hearing Ricardo's comment, I started reviewing and gathering information for a study. As expected, I found plenty of material, much of it in Portuguese; however, the English works were sufficient to get me started and understand the basics, which I can now share with you for further reading.

In 1095, Pope Urban II issued the papal bull Terra Nullius (empty land), which declared that all land controlled by Christian empires was legally theirs. This was followed by several papal pronouncements (papal bulls) that collectively became known as the Doctrine of Discovery. Later, in 1493, the Inter caetera was issued, granting Spain and Portugal ownership of all lands west and south of a line drawn from pole to pole, 100 leagues west and south of any of the Azores or Cabo Verde Islands. This bull was modified in 1494 with the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which established that any newly discovered lands outside Europe, along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands off the West African coast, would belong to Portugal. Later, a document called the ‘Compact of 1495’ was created, in which Portugal agreed to delay marking the lines until some island or mainland could be discovered in the Portuguese or Spanish sections of the Atlantic. This was due to a disagreement over the exact location of the 370-degree longitude, as there was no method of determining longitude by measurement at that time.

In this context, it is important to note that Christopher Columbus, the Italian explorer, is famously known for his voyages across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, which led to European contact with the Caribbean islands through his four journeys, marking the announcement of the discovery of the New World. Although the claim that he discovered the mainland during his third voyage was disputed, it was later accepted after the 1513-15 trials. Spain had thus already made numerous discoveries, and following the treaty, amicability existed between Spain and Portugal, so there was no real need for secrecy. However, considering that private finance was involved, some level of competition always existed between them.

We all know the basics - Brazil was officially "discovered" in 1500 when a fleet led by the 32-year-old Portuguese noble Pedro Alvares Cabral, en route to Calicut, ended up at Porto Seguro, between Salvador and Rio de Janeiro. His appointment as the leader of the second fleet, despite limited navigational and sailing experience, was seen as a political move by the King. However, the reader should remember that he was accompanied by more experienced navigators such as Bartolomeu Dias, Diogo Dias, and Nicolau Coelho.

As we know, the fleet departed from Lisbon on March 9, 1500, passed the Canary Islands five days later, and arrived at Cape Verde on the 22nd. The equator was crossed on April 9, and for some unclear reasons (some scribes mentioned a fierce storm), it turned westward, following the Volta do mar technique perfected by Portuguese navigators. Instead of sailing directly against the wind and current, ships first sailed west, away from the coast, to reach the westerlies (winds blowing from west to east); then, they turned east and were carried back toward their destination. On the 22nd, the ships arrived at Monte Pascoal, on the northeastern coast of present-day Brazil. After this initial contact, they studied the Indigenous people, exchanged gifts, restocked the ships' supplies, and built a large cross, while the fleet's supply ship hurried back to Lisbon to announce the discovery of the new land. According to Cabral's calculations, the land was east of the demarcation line established in the Treaty of Tordesillas. The territory was within Portugal's designated area, and a large cross was placed to mark the event and reinforce Portugal's claim to the new land.

After confirming that this land was indeed along a long coast and not an island, Cabral and his fleet sailed to India around May 2nd or 3rd. Twenty days later, they encountered a fierce storm, and Bartolomeu Dias's ships were lost. The battered remnants of the fleet rounded the Cape of Good Hope and eventually stopped near Soffola, then proceeded to Malindi by August for repairs and refurbishment. The fleet arrived in Calicut on September 13. The rest of Cabral's story was recounted in earlier articles, i.e., his meeting with the Zamorin, the issues with the Arabs, the violence, and the bombardment of Calicut that ensued.

Cabral sailed to Cochin in December 1500, a place that had become friendly with the Portuguese after Vasco da Gama's first visit in 1498. After securing a shipload of valuable spices, the fleet next moved to Cannanore and then started its long voyage back to Lisbon in January 1501. The ships once again got separated and arrived back in Lisbon separately, six months later. Although only five ships had been fully loaded, two sailed empty, and six ships were lost, the cargoes on the five were quickly sold, resulting in a healthy profit for the Portuguese Crown.

King Manuel quickly organized the next voyage with Cabral to command what was known as the Revenge fleet, aiming to deal heavy damage to the Zamorin of Calicut, who had rejected Portuguese demands for a pepper monopoly. Strangely, six months after preparations started, Cabral was removed from command, and Vasco da Gama was appointed as the fleet's admiral. Cabral fell out of favor with the king and went into virtual exile, never regaining the monarch's favor. Perhaps his sins at Malabar caught up with him, as he fell ill and eventually retreated into a mostly secluded private life, dying unrecognized in 1520. Cabral, a person who should have benefited greatly from the incredible discovery of Brazil, received little acclaim and then vanished from history for nearly 300 years.

After its discovery, the official Portuguese name for the land was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz). However, it was popularly known as Brazil, named after the Portuguese word for the red brazilwood, a tree that once grew abundantly along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word Brasil commonly believed to derive from the phrase "red like an ember," formed from brasa (meaning 'ember') and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).  Terra da Santa Cruz was thus replaced by Terra do Brasil. The Portuguese expanded their holdings in Brazil, and by 1750, this wealthy territory was considered Portugal's most important part of its far-reaching maritime empire.

It took a long time for Cabral to re-enter historical discussions. When Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen (later Viscount of Porto Seguro) found Cabral's long-forgotten tomb in Santarém in 1839, historians and politicians were shocked by the explorer's misfortune, which caused a public outcry. While Cabral’s discovery was widely accepted until then, a controversy emerged toward the end of the 19th century when Emperor Pedro II of Brazil posed a question during a meeting in 1854: whether the discovery was actually ‘accidental’, as everyone had been led to believe, or if it was ‘intentional’. By ‘intentional’, the assumption was, of course, that Portugal knew about a large landmass to the West.

Why would Portugal continue to promote the 'accidental' theory? Telma Alancar argues that Brazil had about seven million indigenous people in 1500, and it was not an empty land ready for colonization. Therefore, framing Brazil's colonization by Cabral and others as ‘accidental’ allowed the Portuguese to avoid ethical and moral questions about the domination of its land and people. However, those who believe it was ‘intentional’ point to the "Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis" by Duarte Pacheco, which implies that Cabral's visit was planned. The contents of this work were kept secret from the public for nearly four centuries by order of King Manuel I, and parts of it, including maps and notes, have since been lost. Pacheco claimed in his Esmeraldo de situ Orbis that the King of Portugal sent him to discover land to the west in 1498, two years before Cabral's landfall. Let’s now take a look at this explorer.

Duarte Pacheco Pereira was a Portuguese sea captain, soldier, explorer, and cartographer. He traveled extensively in the central Atlantic Ocean, west of the Cape Verde Islands, along the coast of West Africa, and was later sent to India. In 1503, he set out for India as captain of the Espírito Santo, one of the three ships in the armada led by Afonso de Albuquerque. In 1504, he was put in charge of defending Cochin, a Portuguese protectorate in India, against a series of attacks between March and July of that year by the Zamorin of Calicut. Using his skills, considerable luck, and deep knowledge of the tidal patterns in the Cochin backwaters, he managed to defend Cochin heroically for five months, despite having a much smaller army compared to the large army and navy of the Zamorin of Calicut. Duarte Pacheco was celebrated by the Raja of Cochin for this effort and honored by King Manuel I of Portugal with public festivities upon his return to Lisbon in 1505.

But what connection could he have to the discovery of Brazil? Between 1505 and 1508, Duarte Pacheco Pereira wrote a book, Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis. It was never finished, but was published only in 1892 (with the English translation in 1936). There was much debate about the meaning of the term Esmeraldo, and one theory suggests that Pacheco's name is related to the Malayalam word for green, implying that he was being compared to a unique green emerald stone. The book mainly covers cosmography and navigation, with three parts completed and a fourth left unfinished.

In the Esmeraldo de situ orbis, written from 1505 to 1508, it is stated that in the third year of the reign of D. Manuel (therefore in 1498), the King ordered him to "discover the western part, beyond the greatness of the Ocean Sea, where a very large landmass is found and navigated, with many large islands adjacent to it", which extends from the equator to 70º N. and from the same equator to 28º S.; and in this last part "much fine Brazil" was found.

Studying the case, Capistrano de Abreu concluded that the first text refers to a trip to the Northern Hemisphere, and it is likely that Duarte Pacheco went with one of the Corte Real brothers to Canada and Newfoundland. As for the continentality of America and the existence of brazilwood south of the equatorial line, he claims this was already known at the time the Esmeraldo was written.

In his book, Pacheco proceeds to argue that the recent discoveries of the Portuguese in the western Atlantic, which he regards as having initiated, provide fresh evidence of his contention. The immediate interest of the passage for us lies in the fact that Pacheco believed this "large continent" to be continuous from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Morrison, who discusses this aspect in great detail, agrees with Capistrano, stating that it was simply a widely accepted hypothesis at the time and that no solid proof actually existed. It was just a concept articulated by Pacheco.

The ‘intentional’ side argues that Portugal knew, but suppressed the information under 'the conspiracy of silence' when censorship was severe, maps and travel accounts were suppressed, to maintain Portugal's ocean superiority and to keep interlopers away from Africa and Asia. Navigation charts were sometimes only loaned to navigators by the India House, and at the end of a voyage, they had to be returned to that institution. The Esmeraldo was possibly banned from circulation, censored, and sections were subsequently suppressed for national policy reasons. Approximately 18 maps of the world and numerous unique sketches were lost, along with the originals, in the Lisbon earthquake/fire of 1755, and only two copies still exist.

Although the western swing in the Cabral voyage seemed justified, as it is now confirmed to be a good navigational technique recommended by da Gama, no reason for it was given in any of the contemporary accounts of the voyage or by any reliable historians of the period, except for João de Barros, who states that the fleet went westward to avoid the Guinea calms. Many subsequent voyages to India followed this route, some to land on the coast of Brazil for wood, water, and supplies, and others because, although this course was longer, it offered better sailing conditions and ultimately allowed faster reach of the destination. Morrisson, on the other hand, believes that Cabral followed Gama's advice and took the suggested route to India, which has since proven to be the fastest then and now.

Morrison writing in 1965 argues that Pacheco must have either been an observer on the third voyage of Columbus, as Greenlee supposes, or that Pacheco indeed explored lands in the Portuguese-allocated area but failed to find any. However, he believes that Pacheco later provided enough information in his own maps, which were used to prepare the Cantino Planisphere. The idea that Pacheco had discovered Brazil before Cabral has since been rejected; it is now believed that Pacheco traveled to North America instead.

Charles Nowell, writing in 1936, concentrates on the missing sailing orders. He states - Unfortunately, the royal instructions to Cabral are only partially available, and the surviving fragment remains silent about the first and, for us, most crucial part of the voyage. Because of this, we must speculate about the nature of the orders. The fact that only a part of Cabral's instructions still exists might be significant. Manoel's fragile relations with Spain and his fear of offending that country could have led to the immediate destruction of the initial part of the orders; if they concerned any part of the New World, it would not have been safe to make them public.

There is a question whether Vasco da Gama heard about islands or landmasses to the West from Arab sailors he encountered during his voyage to India. Was that the reason he gave specific directions to Cabral to head west? Gama's secretary records – 'This is the way which it seemed to Vasco da Gama that Pedro Alvarez Cabral should go on his journey, it pleasing the king.' If he turned west to gather wood, food, and water, then he certainly knew there was land there.

Another clue appears in Mestre João's letter to the King after Cabral's discovery. Concerning the location of this land, Senhor, if your Highness will send for a map belonging to Pero Vaz Bisagudo, your Highness will be able to see there the location of this land; but the map does not state whether this country is inhabited or not; it is an old map and your Highness will find that Mina is shown on it. Mestre João, a scholar, believed and trusted the ‘old’ Bisagudo map, which suggested a pre-Columbian voyage to Brazil by the Portuguese. The Bisagudo (Cunha) map which featured the Castle of São Jorge da Mina in addition to the island of Vera Cruz, has never been found!

Portuguese historian Duarte Leite objects to the claim by Pacheco, thus - "if Pacheco did discover areas east of the Line of Demarcation and did bring back news of his to [King] Manuel [of Portugal], the reason which induced Don Manuel to keep secret. . . such an important discovery escapes me. As soon as Cabral returned in 1501, Manuel announced the discovery of Brazil to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Why would he not, in 1499, after the return of Vasco da Gama, make a similar announcement if Pacheco had already discovered Brazil? No objection could come on the part of Spain, given the division made by the Treaty of Tordesillas, as indeed none came in 1501 when Cabral's discovery was announced. I am persuaded that Pacheco neither discovered Brazil in 1498 nor was present two years later at its discovery by Cabral.

A comment in American professor Charles Nowell’s paper suggests an answer to the question - In October, 1497, a marriage of state occurred between King Manoel and Princess Isabel, daughter of the rulers of Spain. This, coupled with the death of Prince Juan, the brother of Isabel, made Manoel, through his wife, heir to the thrones of Castile, Aragon, and Leon. In 1498, the pair made a journey through Spain, being acclaimed as future King and queen. These circumstances, in the very year of Pacheco's exploration, explain its secrecy, for Manoel was naturally reticent about giving offense to Spain, of which he hoped soon to be King. Yet even this did not prevent him from looking to Portugal's interests. The line of Tordesillas had not been adequately located, and there was a growing Spanish interest in the southern Atlantic, as evidenced by the voyage of Columbus in that same year. Obviously, the time had come to act upon the late King João's knowledge of a land to the southwest. Hence, the voyage of Duarte Pacheco and the secrecy which attended it.

De Souza, analyzing the Venetian cartographer Andrea Bianco, focuses on the mention of "Ixola Otinticha" in Andrea Bianco's map and identifies it as the island of Santiago in the Cape Verde Archipelago, thus asserting that it was indeed known to some navigators well before Cabral's discovery.

Now that we have a better understanding of the two main contenders, let's examine the other claimants, if only for completeness.

Spanish explorers, other than Columbus

The possible landings of the expeditions by Spanish fleets under de Ojeda with Amerigo Vespucci (1499), Guerra, and Yáñez Pinzón (1500), and Diego de Lepe mention lands south of Columbus's discoveries. Pinzón is the strongest contender and did provide proof of having passed the shores, and was, as such, recognized by Spanish historians.

There is some evidence that two Spaniards, Vicente Yáñez Pinzón and Diego de Lepe, traveled along the northern coast of Brazil between January and March 1500. Pinzón sailed from what is now Cabo de Santo Agostinho (in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco) to the mouth of the Amazon River. There, he encountered another Spanish expedition led by Lepe, which reached as far as the Oyapock River in March. The reason Cabral is credited with discovering Brazil, rather than the Spanish explorers, is that the visits by Pinzón and Lepe were brief and had no lasting impact.

Portuguese historians, such as Leite, when studying these voyages, believe that all these claims are questionable. They argue that these explorers possibly saw the mouth of the Orinoco, not the Amazon, and stayed near the Caribbean, not further south. Leite also believed that some maps associated with these voyages might have been altered after 1500.

St Brendan

Then comes the story of St. Brendan, the Irish navigator who discovered Ui Brasil, part of what they called Greater Ireland. St. Brendan (Brendan the Navigator) is credited in the Irish annals with the earliest discoveries on the New World shores, which he called "Greater Ireland." With the Irish Culdees, he is said to have visited Iceland, Vinland (New England), and traveled southward to Florida and Darien, then to Brazil. In a 1375 map, Brazil Island appears with a shape and position similar to South America. Historians do not give much weight to this claim and dismiss it as a Celtic myth.

There are many more leads, such as the evidence offered by Estevao Frois, who suggests Portuguese presence at Pernambuco in 1492, João Coelho (a partner of Corte-Real) sometime in the 1490s, and João Ramalho from Beira, a Portuguese settler at Sao Vincente in Brazil since 1490, who was perhaps a degredado or shipwreck survivor.

The arguments will continue, and debates will rage. However, despite a certain amount of mystery remaining due to the paucity of resources, even after a century of investigation, Cabral continues to be the top contender for being 'The man who discovered Brazil'.

References

Portuguese voyages to America in the fifteenth century - Morison, Samuel Eliot
The Discovery of Brazil-Accidental or Intentional? Charles E. Nowell
Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis - Duarte Pacheco Pereira. Tr. G. T. Kimble
The Voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral to Brazil and India – WB Greenlee
Silencing the Doctrine of Discovery in Brazil: Accidental "Discoveries", Secret Manuscripts, Imaginary Lines and Myths - Telma Alencar
A Supposed Discovery of Brazil before 1448: Thomas Oscar Marcondes de Souza

Those who desire to study the Bianco map may peruse this paper: 1448 Andrea Bianco Portolan Chart – Cartographic Evidence of the Pre-Columbian Newport Tower - Patrick Shekleton

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